(!tnurnrbia
m~tnln!lirul ilnutltlg
Continning
LEHRE UNO WEHRE
MAGAZIN FUER EV.-LUTH. HOMILETIK
THEOLOGICAL QUARTERLy-THEOLOGICAL MONTHLY
Vol. X April, 1939 No.4
CONTENTS Pqe
The Means of Grace in Roman Theology. Theodore Graebner ...... 241
Der Pastor als Synodalglied. F. Pfotenhauer ................ _ ... _ .... _ ....... _ 250
The False Arguments for the Modern Theory of Open Questions.
Walther-Arndt ... _... ... . .. _ .... _.............. . ..... _ ... _ .. __ .... _. 254
Sermon Study on 1 Cor. 10:16, 17. Th. Laetsch ......... _ ..... _ ........ _ ...... 262
Evil Spirits ... _ ............... _ .................. ................................. ....... ............. __ ....... 2'16
Predigtentwuerfe fuer die Evangelien der Thomasius-Perikopen-
reihe ... _._ .... _._ ....... _ .... _ ................ _ .... _ .......... _ ..... _ ......... _ ........ __ ........ %'19
Miscellanea ... __ . __ ._ .... _ .... _ .... _ .... _ .... _ .... _ .... _ .......... _ .... _ ... __ ... _ ... _ ... _._ 293
Theological Observer. - Kirchlich-Zeitgeschichtliches ... _ .... _ ..... _ .. _ 29'1
Book Review. - Literator ......... _ ... _ .......... _ ... _ .... _ ... _ ... _ ... _. __ .. _._. 309
BIn Predller mua n1cht aIleln wei-
tift. aIIO duI er cUe Scha1e unter-
welM. wle de rec:hte ChrIsten lOIlen
_In. sondem aucb daneben den Woe!-
fen we""". duI de cUe Scbafe nlcht
l!I8l'Uten und mit fabcber Lehre ver-
fuehren und J:rrtum eblfuehren.
Ea 1st keIn DIne. du cUe x-te
mehr bel der Xlrcbe behael& deDn
die JUte Predlit- - Apologfe. An. ...
Luthiif'.
If the trumpet live an uncertaJn
sound who IbaJl prepare blmNlf to
the battle? - J Crw.l4.'.
Published for the
Ev. Luth. Synod of Missouri. Ohio, and Other States
CONCORDIA PUBLISHING BOUSE, St. LoaJs, Mo.
BCHIV
Concordia
Theological Monthly
Vol. X APRIL, 1939 No.4
The Means of Grace in Roman Theology
That things are not what they seem is an observation elicited
frequently by a course of study in Roman Catholic dogma. At no
point is this caution more necessary than in an attempt to com-
prehend the Roman Catholic idea of Grace and of the Means
of Grace.
When the Lutheran Reformation eliminated that host of inter-
mediaries and plenipotentiaries who obstructed the way to grace,
it incredibly simplified certain fundamental concepts. Grace is
the attitude of divine good will toward the sinner, nothing else.
And the Means of Grace are the provisions which God has made
to bring His favor to the individual. Fundamentally there is only
one means, the Gospel-message. In its plural form the word would
include the Sacraments, Baptism and Holy Communion, and such
functions of the holy ministry as preaching and absolution.
The Roman handbooks list a bewildering array of topics under
the head of Means of Grace. Francis Cassilly has written a text-
book for use in Catholic high schools entitled Religion, Doctrine,
and Practice (1926). Cassilly lists among the Means of Grace first
of all Grace as Sanctifying and Actual, thereby advising us at
once of a fundamental difference somewhere in the definition of
grace, as distinguished from the Protestant concept. Among the
Means of Grace there is listed next Prayer, with a special section
on the "Hail Mary." Then the Sacraments. Then the sacramentals,
such as the blessings of the Church, also holy water, the rosary,
candles, crosses, and medals. Furthermore, religious ceremonies,
genuflections, vestments, liturgy, processions, pilgrimages. Also the
ecclesiastical year with its holy days, rogation days, the Corpus
Christi, the devotion of the Sacred Heart, and the entire system
of seasons and days, of which the author says that it unquestionably
"could have come only from the inspiration of the Holy Ghost."
16
242 The Means of Grace in Roman Theology
In all this variety of Means of Grace one is conspicuously absent-
the Word.
Yet there is nothing haphazard or accidental about this classi-
fication of various functions, offices, institutions, and ceremonies as
Means of Grace. The clue to the apparently heterogeneous scheme
is found in the Roman Catholic definition of grace.
Grace
In Roman theology the term grace includes a number of
religious ideas which are carefully defined in the handbooks of
doctrine, however confusing may be their use in the literature of
the Church generally. A large number of passages might readily
be quoted in which the term grace is employed in its Scriptural
sense. The grace of God is also to the Catholic God's for-
giving love. So thoroughly is this concept of grace embedded in
both the Old and the New Testament Scriptures that no theology
which still has its fringe in the canonical writings can fail to employ
the term in its native sense. Yet throughout the dogmatic and
devotional literature of the Roman Church a constant shift in the
meaning of the term grace is observed.
When the Protestant says that "without grace no one can enter
heaven," he has in mind the pardoning love of God. When the
Catholic teacher uses the same expression, he means "sanctifying
grace" - that gift which Adam lost through the Fall, the gift "which
had placed him in a supernatural state and made him a friend and
child of God with a right and title to enter heaven." 1) The Roman
theory assumes that, as Adam received a donum superadditum
which made him pleasing to God, so every child of God may receive
this "supernatural gift by which we are cleansed from sins, made
holy, pleasing to God, and heirs of heaven." This gift is called
"sanctifying grace," also "the grace of justification." "By it we are
justified, that is, we pass from a state of sin to a holy and righteous
state." Of this gift it is said that it is "a free gift of God and
cannot be merited by naturally good works" - a limitation which
makes confusion worse confounded because granting some merit
to the works which are good, - though not naturally so. As a mat-
ter of fact, we are immediately informed that sanctifying grace
"gives us a title to merit by our good deeds." 2) More specifically,
sanctifying grace "is restored by acts of faith, hope, and contrition,"
and when a person is in such a state, the Council of Trent declares
life eternal to be strictly merited. If then it is asked by what
means such "grace" may be obtained, we are told that there are
two principal means - prayer and the use of the Sacraments.
1) Cassilly, op. cit., p.145. 2) Cassilly, op. cit., p.147.
The Means of Grace in Roman Theology 243
That which preserves this system from becoming the baldest
Pelagianism is the doctrine that good works "derive their value
from the merits of Jesus Christ."
As distinguished from sanctifying grace, there is actual grace ..
Cassilly illustrates this doctrine by means of a comparison, thus:
"One wintry day a team of horses was laboring to pull a heavily
laden wagon up an ice-covered hill. Finally it was stalled; it could
go no farther. An auto truck happening by, the driver saw the
predicament of the stalled team and came to its relief by attaching
his truck to the wagon-pole. With the assistance of the truck the
horses easily drew the load up the hill." Now, in this case the
natural powers of man are the team of horses, the grace of God is
the auto truck, and so man, "by the union of his natural powers
with grace, is enabled to perform the virtuous act or overcome the
temptation." "Actual," then, is a term implying activity, the ability
of man to do good and avoid evil, differing from sanctifying grace
(which is "permanent") in this, that, "when the temptation passes
or the good act is performed, the grace is no longer needed, and it
ceases." It is more proper therefore to speak of actual graces
(plural) , - and this is the common Catholic usage, - "graces, like
gentle rain from heaven, are constantly falling into our souls," etc. 3)
It is only with this preview of the Catholic concept of grace
that we are able to understand the doctrine of the means by which
grace is conferred. These, as has been said, range from the "Hail
Mary" and holy candles to the tremendous mystery of the Mass.
Yet there are two features which characterize the Roman concept
of the Means of Grace in a manner peculiar to that system.
We have in mind the doctrines of the opus operatum and of the
indelible character in the sacramental system.
The Sacramental System
The Means of Grace, as the term is understood in Roman
theology, is not primarily the Word, but the priestly function,
more accurately still, that complex of priestly functions which we
call the sacramental system.4)
Through the Sacraments, permanently instituted by Christ, the
Roman church-member has the means by which, when rightly used,
God is moved infallibly to confer grace upon the soul. But
3) The Catholic catechist will ask: "Are graces distributed equally?
Why not? Did the great saints receive more graces than ordinary Chris-
tians? How do our graces depend on our own disposition? Do we
always notice the graces we receive?" So Cassilly.
4) It should be noted that Gibbons ranks prayer above the Sacra-
ments as a Means of Grace. Faith of Our Fathers, Ed. '92, p. 265. So the
handbooks generally.
244 The Means of Grace in Roman Theology
although the grace of God is equally present in all, they have each
a specific effect and also differ in their ability to confer an indelible
character. The theological handbooks endeavor to present, more
or less successfully, this unity of purpose (with diversity of gift)
by means of analogies from human life. Looking upon life as
a conflict and the Church as the army at war with sin, Berthold of
Chiemsee (Tewtsche Theologey, 1528) points out that man is
enrolled in this army through Baptism; Confirmation gives him
the armament; Penance binds up and heals those wounded in the
strife; Communion gives food to the soldier; and Extreme Unction
serves the dying. Holy Orders sends the servants into the Chris-
tian battle-line, and Marriage supplies ever new additions to
the forces.
Other unifying principles have been suggested. It has been
pointed out that the seven sacraments are eaeh opposed to one of
the seven deadly sins, thus: in Baptism, humility opposes pride;
in Confirmation, hope is opposed to avarice; in the Eucharist, love
against envy; in Penance, righteousness against gluttony; in
Extreme Unction, endurance against sloth; in Ordination, wisdom
against anger; in Marriage, continence against impurity.
Again, it has been reasoned that Baptism and Penance concern
faith, Confirmation and Extreme Unction concern hope, Eucharist
and Matrimony concern charity, while Ordination is the means of
supplying all the rest.
More artificially still, the Catholic writers of works of devotion
draw an analogy between the seven sacraments and the five loaves
and two fishes, Matt. 14: 17 ff. Five sacraments are incumbent on
every Christian, "even as bread is the universal food," while the
fishes correspond to Ordination and Matrimony, which are left to
the individual choice, "even as sea-food is a matter of personal
preference. "
The artificial nature of these parallels and analogies is evident.
While impressive and even convincing to rude minds, they are not
featured in the modern handbooks of instruction. Francis Cassilly
says, rather matter of fact:
"The number and nature of the sacraments correspond most
aptly with the needs of the temporal and spiritual life. As men
by their natural birth are brought into the world, so by Baptism
they are born to the supernatural life of grace and brought into
the Church. Children must grow and get strong, and Confirmation
makes us strong and vigorous in grace. Men need food to nourish
them, and the Eucharist is the food of the soul. When people
fall ill, they need a remedy to bring them back to bodily health;
Penance restores life and health to the soul. All must die, and
Extreme Unction gives us consolation and special grace to die
The Means of Grace in Roman Theology 245
in peace and resignation; and it does more, for it brings back the
former vigor of the soul by removing the remains of sin and some-
times restores the bodily health. Nations must have a government
and civil rulers; the Sacrament of Holy Orders supplies spiritual
rulers to the Church and keeps up its administration. Marriage
makes the family and perpetuates the human race, while the
Sacrament of Matrimony makes the Christian family, perpetuates
the Church on earth, and fills heaven with saints." 5)
But now as to the features which have been superimposed upon
the sacramental system by the doctors of the Church - the opus
operatum doctrine and the Indelible Character.G)
The Doctrine of Opus Operatum
Both the Augsburg Confession and the Apology have expressed
the dissent of the Reformers from "those who teach that the Sacra-
ments justify by the outward act and who do not teach that, in the
use of the Sacraments, faith which believes that sins are forgiven is
required" (Augsb. Conf., Art. 13) and condemn "the whole crowd
of scholastic doctors, who teach that the Sacraments confer grace
ex opere operato, without a good disposition on the part of the
one using them, provided he do not place a hindrance in the way."
(Apol. A. C., XIII,18.) The argument by which Roman Catholic
theology endeavors to establish the absolute efficacy of the Sacra-
ments is one of the strangest combinations of Rationalism and of
argumentum ad hominem, with an appeal to exegesis which ignores
fundamental principles of interpretation. The argument as it is
found in modern text-books of instruction goes back to the pre-
Tridentine, when the apologists for the old system had to justify
their doctrines against the criticism of Lutheran and the other
reformers. The following is translated from the German (and an
uncouth German it is) of John Mensing, whose Antapology, directed
against the Augsburg Confession and its Apology ("der krafftlosen
vnd vngegrundten Philipp Melanchthonis Apologiae") was com-
pleted in 1535: 7)
"When our theologians compared the Sacraments of Holy
Church with those of the Jews, they raised the question whether
in Christ's Sacraments there be a native power (eynige krajJt) ,
to work forgiveness of sins, since it is clear from the Scriptures that
5) Op. cit., p.178.
6) Both doctrines are held also by the Eastern Church, likewise the
teaching that for effective administration of the Sacraments the inward
intention of the priest is necessary. (See Popular Symbolics, p. 143 f.)
7) The section is quoted in Die Vortridentinisch-Katholische Theo-
logie des Reformations-Zeitalters, aus den Quellen Dargestellt von
Dr. Hugo Laemmer. Berlin, 1858, p. 220 f.
246 The Means of Grace in Roman Theology
the Jewish Sacraments did not have this power. Paul, Gal. 4: 9,
calls these weak and beggarly elements - beggarly because they
lacked the sufferings of Christ, without which they were ineffective.
And still the Scripture testifies that the fathers, when they used
such Sacraments, received forgiveness. Now, our theologians
maintain that this did not occur ex opere operato, or by the power
and virtue of the action itself. Rather, they maintain that forgive-
ness was conferred by reason of the faith in Christ on the part
of those who used them, called by our theologians opus operans.
Now, say our theologians, if we are to attribute to the holy Sacra-
ments more virtue and power than we attribute to the Jewish
Sacraments, they must be capable of giving grace to those who
subject themselves faithfully. And this, they say, is ex opere
operato, that is, by the very use of the Sacrament, even if opus
operans (that is, devotion and faith) are not present, so long as
by an obstinate wicked heart and secret unbelief they do not make
themselves unworthy of grace.
"The Sacraments of the Old Testament gave the grace of for-
giveness merely as a reward of faith. If the New Testament Sacra-
ments are to do more, they will give forgiveness by the simple
action that is being performed. The reason for this is the Passion
of Christ, which operates through them. Such a work cannot be
without power. It is true that in Baptism my faith is opus operans;
but Baptism in itself, and viewed in absence of my faith, is opus
operatum, where Christ works without me, and the effect is justifi-
cation, or forgiveness of sins. And so our theologians are steeled
(gesegenet -lit., protected as by a charm) against every argument
of the Lutherans and Anabaptists when they confess that in the
Sacraments of Christ is an invisible power and grace which works
justification and forgiveness of sin, renewal, the infusion of grace
and every virtue, without addition of any work of ours, simply
permitting the Holy Ghost to grant it ex opere operato."
The ex-opere-operato theory was established as official Catholic
doctrine when the Council of Trent pronounced anathema upon
anyone "who would say that grace is not conferred ex opere
operato through the Sacraments of the new law but maintain that
faith in the divine promise is sufficient to obtain grace." (Sess. VII,
Can. VIII.)
The Jesuit dogmatician Christian Pesch, in the sixth volume
of his Praelectiones Dogmaticae, discusses the proposition that "the
Sacraments of the new law confer sanctifying grace ex opere
operato." He explains that by opus operatum is to be understood
the very sacramental sign (as, for instance, the sprinkling of water
upon the head of the candidate) together with the pronouncement
of the words "I baptize thee," etc. "Hence," says Pesch, "the opus
The Means of Grace in Roman Theology 247
operatum is opposed to the opus operantis, that is to say, opposed
either to the merit of the minister or to that of the one receiving
the Sacrament. Accordingly the meaning of the proposition is:
'When a person receives the Sacrament in the prescribed manner,
he receives sanctifying grace, not because himself or the minister
deserve this grace, but by virtue of the sign instituted by Christ.' " 8)
The doctrine of the opus operatum was completely developed
by Bellarmine, whose propositions again were analyzed and refuted
by Gerhard. (Loci, sub "The Sacraments in General.") Bellarmine
as well as the later dogmaticians 9) have endeavored to cover up
the mechanistic theory of the Sacraments involved in the ex opere
operato by pointing out that, while the recipient and his faith have
nothing to do with the efficacy of the Sacrament in conferring grace,
the recipient, by his faith and repentance, supplies a fertile soil for
the operations of divine grace. "As there must be in the wood
a capacity of being set on fire if a flame is to be produced, even
so there must be on the part of the recipient preparation and co-
operation in order that the Sacrament might do its work" - a line
of reasoning which adds to the inconsistencies in the doctrine of
the Sacrament and, worst of all, makes the favorable, or receptive,
attitude of the parishioner the true cause of that infusion of grace
or accession of virtue which Roman theology has substituted for
the free gift of divine pardon. John Perrone, S. J., in his Praelec-
tiones Theologicae,10) seeks to show that Sacraments confer their
grace by an "inner virtue," by adducing proof from the Scriptures,
the fathers, and the unanimous teaching of the Church. All texts
which establish the power of the Sacraments to confer grace are
cited to prove that this power is exerted by the mere outward
performance of the prescribed act. This has been consistently
the method of proof ever since Catholic dogmaticians were com-
pelled to justify their mechanical view of the Means of Grace after
the foundation had been shaken by the first onslaught of the
Reformers.H )
It adds to the confusion when Roman theology makes the
8) Pesch, op. cit., 4th edition, 1914, Vol. 6, p. 46.
9) For instance W. Wilmers, Lehrbuch der Religion, 7th edition, 1912,
IV, 218f.
10) Ratisbon, 1856, Vol. II, p. 267 ff.
11) In the popular presentation little or nothing is made of the
inherent power of the Sacrament, its efficacy ex opere operato, emphasis
being laid on the need of proper disposition. For instance, in Cassilly
both teachings are united in the sentence: "It is to be noted that the
Sacraments, according to the institution of Christ, give grace of them-
selves and not by virtue of the minister or recipient, though the dis-
position of the recipient may be a necessary condition." (Op. cit., p.179.)
248 The Means of Grace in Roman Theology
effectiveness of the Sacraments depend upon an entirely subjective
factor, the purpose in the mind of the officiating priest. This is
the famous doctrine of the Intention.
The Intention
On the one hand, the Roman Church teaches - and to this
Protestant theology has never objected - that the validity of the
Sacrament depends neither on the faith nor on the moral probity
of the minister.12) This does not mean, however, that, in order
that the Sacraments may be administered properly (licite) the
minister may be an unbeliever or living a reckless life of sin.
On the contrary, one who is not in a state of grace, sins mortally
if, knowing such a condition of his soul, he nevertheless administers
a Sacrament. But this does not affect the validity of the sacred
act. The theologians distinguish between an administration licite
and valide. There is no valid administration unless there is present
the intention of the priest.
Here the Aristotelian distinction between matter and form
enters in. If the matter of Baptism is changed, there is no Sacra-
ment, as when another liquid than water is used. Or the form is
altered (and in this terminology, form is equivalent to essence),
and here the intention of the speaker enters as a decisive factor.
It is possible to use conventional words in a subjective manner, as
when instead of intending that Baptism confer grace, the priest
speaks with this intention: "I baptize thee - for the purpose of
cooling thee off." The sacramental word can only then be effective
when the intention to do what the Church does is present.13) The
dogmaticians develop with great ingenuity the exact meaning of
intention. They distinguish it from mere attention, also from
mental distraction, which may be a venial or even a mortal sin,
but does not, like the absence of intention, affect the essence of
a valid Sacrament.H )
The Scripture proof for the Intention is derived from 1 Cor. 4: 1,
Luke 22: 19, and John 20: 23.
The disquieting doubt of the Roman Christian whether his
baptism had been valla and whether in the absence of such valid
Baptism he be properly confirmed, married, ordained, is not over-
looked by the dogmaticians. The handbook of Perrone refers to
the circumstance, "quod;, in Catholicorum doctrina necessario
anxietas animi oriri debeat, num quis fuerit rite baptizatus,
caeteraque sacramenta sibi rite fuerint collata." His answer is
12) Valor sacramentorum neque a fide neque a probitate ministri
pendet. Pesch, op. cit., p.105.
13) Wilmers, op. cit., p. 240 ff. So all the dogmaticians since Trent.
14) Pesch, op. cit., p. 123 ff.
The Means of Grace in Roman Theology 249
that there is a justifiable moral certainty that the rite is celebrated
with the proper priestly intention; that is, the chances are infinitely
against the occurrence of such a lapse.15)
It is difficult to follow the dogma in all its ramifications, as when
Wilmers asserts that the actual intention is not necessary (though
desirable), that the habitual is not sufficient, and that the virtual
is required and is sufficient.16) In the end, the Catholic doctrine
of Intention defies all attempts at definition, since it is, on the one
hand, made an absolute and sufficient condition of a valid rite,
while, on the other hand, the Sacrament is held to be effective by
its inner constitution (ex opere operato), yet with the condition,
in the recipient, of preparation "by making fervent acts of faith,
hope, love, desire, contrition, and humility." 17)
The Indelible Character
The Council of Trent pronounced a curse on all who deny
that in Baptism, Confirmation, and Ordination the soul receives
a spiritual and indelible mark, or character. This accounts for the
fact that these sacraments may not be repeated. The character
is held to be indelible during the present life and in that which
is to come, the latter indeed by an argument e silentio (because
the councils do not limit the character to the present life) .18)
As to the exact nature of this character, Catholic theology has no
descriptions that go beyond adducing those texts which refer to
the seal imprinted upon the believer, 2 Cor. 1: 21, 22; Eph. 1: 13;
4: 30. The inadequacy of these texts was pointed out by Chemnitz
in his Examen 19) and by Gerhard in his criticism of Bellarmine.
Cassilly explains that Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders
"cannot be repeated because they imprint an indelible spiritual
character, or mark, upon the soul. As a brand upon cattle shows
15) Perrone, op. cit., p.283.
16) Referring to the last-mentioned type of intention: "Wer mit
einer solchen Meinung wirkt, verrichtet menschliche, das heisst, aus
Ueberlegung und Freiheit hervorgehende, Handlungen, und eine solche
Meinung ist in Wahrheit eine Einwirkung des Willens auf den sakra-
mentalen Akt." (Wihners, op. cit., p.243.)
17) Cassilly, op. cit., p. 179. There is no space here to enter into
attrition and contrition and the possibility of receiving the benefits of
a Sacrament when in mortal sin without knowing it. Nor can we stop to
analyze the strange dogma that a Sacrament can be received "validly
but without obtaining grace." As when Cassilly defines: "One who
receives Baptism, Confirmation, Extreme Unction, Holy Orders, or
Matrimony unworthily receives them validly, that is, he is actually
baptized, ordained, married, etc., though without obtaining any grace."
(Op. cit., p.180.)
18) Wilmers, op. cit., p.271.
19) Exam. Cone. Trid., p.2, in can. 9, De Sacramentis.
250 tlet ~aftot a(g 6\lnoba(gHeb
who the owner is, this spiritual mark shows that the person belongs
to Christ in a special manner. This character remains forever,
even in the next life, where it will be a badge of joy and glory
to the elect and of shame to the lost." And this is as far as the
doctors go. They call the character a "supernatural quality of
the soul by which man in a peculiar manner becomes conformed
to Christ, the High Priest, is set aside for divine service, and
receives a special relationship to grace." This is the definition of
Pesch. It is not a physical potency but rather a moral power by
which the individual is made capable of receiving or administering
sacred things. Pesch finally dismisses the discussion of the
character by designating it as a "passibilis qualitas." (!!) Whether
it be located in the essence of the soul or in its faculties, has also
been disputed by the scholastics. Aquinas held that it was affixed
to the intellect, Scotus found it in the will, while the Jesuit theo-
logians referred it to the soul's essence. Pesch finds the solution
in the opinion, held by many doctors, that there is no real dis-
tinction between the essence of the soul and its faculties!
And here we shall terminate our survey of that farrago of
\Unprofitable, self-contradictory, man-made dogmas which the
Church of Rome has substituted for the simple doctrine of the
Means of Grace. THEODORE GRAEBNER
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