Full Text for Old Testament Isagogics (Text)

Old Testament
Isagogics
by Dr. Walter Maier III Concordia Theological Seminary Fort Wayne, Indiana 1998 2nd Rev. Ed. CONCORDIA THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY LlCRf':, '
FORT WAYNE, INDIANA 45825
DELTO Steering Committee Concordia Theological Seminary 6600 North Clinton Street Fort Wayne, Indiana 46825 Telephone: (219) 452-2172 Fax: (219) 452·2270 Email: DEL TO@ctsfw.edu Address questions regarding the form of these materials to the DEL TO Steering Committee. Direct questions regarding the content of the course to Dr. Maier"I through the office listed above. Copyright ©1998 Concordia Theological Seminary. All rights reserved. You may copy this work for personal use and for other fair uses as defined by the Copyright code of the United States of America. To use this course in other ways. you must obtain permission from the DEL TO Steering Committee. List of Effective Pages
Front Material ............................................... title, copyright, LOEP
Syllabus ............................................................. pages 1 -4
List ofModem Works Cited .............................................. pages 5-6
Unit 1 ..................................................... cover, pages 1.1-1.15
Unit2 ..................................................... cover,pages2.1-2.18
Unit 3 ..................................................... cover, pages 3.1 -3.13
Unit 4 .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. cover, pages 4.1 -4.30
Unit 5 ..................................................... cover, pages 5.1 -5.20
Unit 6 ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. cover, pages 6.1 -6.16
Unit 7 ................................................... " cover, pages 7.1 -7.14
Unit 8 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. cover, pages 8.1 -8.16 Supplemental Readings 1. Threefold Division of the Old Testament 2. The Apocrypha 3. Chronology ofPatriarchal Period 4. Length ofthe Sojourn 5. Chronology of Egyptian and Israelite History 6. Chronology ofEgyptian History 7. Date ofthe Exodus 8. The Six Blood Sacrifices Differentiated 9. The Numbers in Numbers 10. Map ofthe Ancient Near East 1550-1050 11. Important Events in the Ancient Near East 1550-1050 12. Time Chart ofAncient Near East 13. United Kingdom 14. Kings & Prophets 15. Sin ofJeroboam 16. Framework 17. A Chronology ofthe Kings ofJudah and Israel 18. Chronology ofthe Divided Monarchy 19. A Chronology ofthe Ancient Near East 20. "Wisdom", Proverbs 1-9 21. Prophets, Prophecy 22. Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament 23. Maier, Nahum Old Testament Isagogics -Syllabus
I. Course Overview and Purpose General introduction to the questions ofthe canon and text ofthe Old Testament. Authorship, time ofcomposition, purpose, content and nature ofthe books ofthe Pentateuch, with attention to questions ofPenta teucha I Criticism. Authorship, time ofcomposition, purpose, content and nature ofthe Prophets (Former and Latter) and the Writings. Special attention to Messianic prophecy throughout the Old Testament. II. Introduction The DELTO Old Testament Isagogics course is a combining, and condensing, ofthe on­campus seminary courses Old Testament Isagogics I and Old Testament Isagogics II, each of which is a thirty-hour course. The former course covers the Pentateuch and Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings), which is the subject matter ofUnits 1-4 ofthis DELTO course. Isagogics II covers the remaining books ofthe Old Testament, which is the subject matter ofUnits 5-8 ofthis course. The books in Units 1-4 are studied basically in the order in which they were written. The same holds true for most ofthe books in Units 5-8. With some of the books in that unit, however, there is a question as to when exactly they were composed or completed. This is true especially for Obadiah, which is the reason this prophetic book is studied first. Why the other books are studied when they are will be clear with the reading ofthe discussion ofeach one. This course assumes as part ofthe student's background what was learned in the DELTO Old Testament Bible and Hermeneutics courses. At a few places references will be made to those courses. There will be some overlap with the Old Testament Bible course, which is unavoidable; the student can consider this to be helpful review. The book by Dillard and Longman is an important supplement to the printed notes, and it is assumed that the student will read this required text. There has been an attempt to minimize the overlap between the notes and the textbook. The student will notice points ofdifference between the notes and what has been written by Dillard and Longman, notably concerning the authorship ofcertain ofthe Old Testament books, and a few oftheir theological comments. Always assume that the position ofthe course is what is in the printed notes. If the student has a question about something he has read in the textbook (or in the notes), he is encouraged to present the question to his mentor and/or to the instructor. The exams will cover what the student has read in the notes and the textbook, with the emphasis on the former. There is a combination oftypes ofquestions on the exams: true­false, multiple choice, short identification and short answer. Mentors will assist students primarily by sharing with them their insights into the various Old Testament books, how they have used these books in their ministry, and by answering any 1 questions students might have. May the Lord bless both students and mentors, as they together study His precious Word which is contained in the Old Testament! III. Course Objectives A.
Pastoral knowledge When students complete this course, they will know the: 1.
Basic history of the canon and text ofthe Old Testament. 2.
Content and message of the Pentateuch, the Former and Latter Prophets, and the Writings; and authorship, date ofcomposition, purpose and structure of the books of the Old Testament. 3.
The theological and Christo logical character ofthe individual books. 4.
Unity ofthe Bible as evidenced by these books. 5.
Modem theories ofhigher criticism concerning the books, and responses to these theories. B.
Pastoral skills When students complete this course, they will be able to: 1.
Employ Old Testament texts in their preaching and teaching with greater understanding and insight. 2.
Articulate the relevancy ofOld Testament texts to doctrines and life of the Church. 3.
Evaluate critically the works ofexegetical scholars and benefit from their research. C.
Pastoral attitudes When students complete this course, they will have gained: 1.
A deepened respect for the Old Testament as the Word of God. 2.
A deepened respect for the Old Testament as a source and norm ofdoctrine in the Christian Church. 3.
A growing eagerness to bring God's message as proclaimed in these books to today's people. 2
IV. How This Course Works A.
Teaching Methodology and Time-frame •
Lecture • Reflective readings This course will be taught in an eight-week time period. B.
Course Assignments -provided at the beginning ofeach unit. C.
CTS Instructor Visit -the first week ofthe course. D.
Coordinating Instruction with Mentors -The instructor and mentors can be in contact via telephone, e-mail, and letter, as necessary. E.
Materials Required Text Dillard, Raymond B. and Longman III, Tremper. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994. Handouts: These documents are provided at the end ofthe booklet. V. How This Course Is Graded The following is an explanation ofthe DELTa grading policy: A
Superior work, over and above the required assignments, reserved for those whose work is exceptional. B
Excellent work. Average grade expected for graduate level work. Nothing ofexception to note. Nothing missing, all assignments complete and a reasonable depth ofreflection observed. C Minimal Passing. Adequate, sufficient, meets minimum requirements. F Unacceptable work or work missing Grades ofA, B, C, and F will be given. Pluses and minuses can also be added to the first three grades. Four exams will be given. They are a combination oftrue/false, mUltiple choice, short identification, and short answer. Exam 1 covers units 1 and 2 and will be given at the end ofweek 2. Exam 2 covers units 3 and 4 and will be given at the end ofweek 4. Exam 3 covers units 5 and 6 and will be given at the end ofweek 6. Exam 4 covers units 7 and 8 and will be given at the end ofweek 8. A student's scores for the four exams will be added up. The percentage he has ofthe possible 3 total points (for the four exams) will determine his grade. No copies are to be made ofthe exams. Only the original exams are to be sent to the instructor (no faxes). VI. Lesson Summary Unit 1-Week I Unit 5 -Week 5 Introduction Ruth Revelation and Inspiration Proverbs Inerrancy Song ofSolomon Textual Criticism Ecclesiastes Texts and Manuscripts Job Canon, Canonicity and Apocrypha Prophets and Prophecy Obadiah Unit 2 -Week 2 Joel Genesis Exodus Unit 6 -Week 6 Leviticus Amos The Ceremonial Law Jonah Numbers Hosea Micah Unit 3-Week 3 Isaiah Deuteronomy Nahum Authorship ofthe Pentateuch Unit 7-Week 7 Unit 4 -Week 4 Zephaniah Joshua Habakkuk Judges Jeremiah I Samuel Lamentations 2 Samuel Ezekiel 1& 2 Kings Daniel Post Exilic Period Unit 8-Week 8 Haggai Zechariah Esther 1 & 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Malachi Psalms 4 Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 1
1. Revelation, Inspiration, Inerrancy 2. Transmission and Textual Criticism 3. Canonicity 4. The Apocrypha Unit 1 -Old Testament Isagogics
Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: 1. About the subjects which are fundamental to a study ofthe Old Testatment. Be able to: 1.
Read about these subjects with greater understanding, and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1.
Unit 1 material in this student guide. 2.
Handout, Threefold Division ofthe Old Testament 3.
Handout, The Apocrypha Writing Assignments None 1.1
Unit 1 -Old Testament Isagogics
1. Revelation, Inspiration, Inerrancy At the beginning ofthis course it is important to review the fundamental concepts ofrevelation, inspiration, and inerrancy. How do we know about God? How does God reveal Himself to the human race? Everyone is born with a certain amount ofnatural knowledge ofGod. Further, this innate knowledge is supplemented by what we can tell about God from the world around us (from nature). The ancient Greek philosophers, without having Scripture, knew that the Supreme Being was a god of order, wisdom, knowledge, power, and beauty. However, people could never know about God's grace, and His plan ofsalvation for fallen humanity, simply from the natural knowledge they have at birth, or by taking a walk along the beach, or a hike in the mountains. God has made this known to us in His Word. How did Scripture come about? The answer: via inspiration. Inspiration is that divine act whereby God selected writers, worked in them the will to write, moved them to write, and so guided the writing process that what they recorded was the very thoughts, indeed, the very words God wanted recorded. Therefore, we speak of verbal inspiration. God is the actual author ofall ofScripture; it is His Word. Inspiration was not a mechanical process. That is, the writer was not zapped by God and did not become merely a human recording machine (with the Holy Spirit moving the writer's arms and fingers to record God's Word). The human author's individuality comes through in what he wrote. God purposely chose the writers with their specific personalities, backgrounds, training, interests, and writing styles. Thus, for example, the style ofIsaiah differs somewhat from that of Jeremiah and Malachi; the style ofPaul differs to a certain extent from that ofPeter and John. Also, some ofthe authors made use oforal tradition (reliable information handed down orally from generation to generation), and/or previously written records which have not been preserved for us. Cf. the first four verses ofLuke, where the author explains that he consulted those who were eyewitnesses of the ministry of Christ. Nevertheless, whatever went into the writing ofa book of Scripture, the Holy Spirit was guiding the whole process so that in the end what was recorded was indeed the Word ofGod. Why is this concept of inspiration taught? What is the evidence for inspiration? First, there is an amazing unity throughout all of Scripture, despite the fact that the various books were written over a long period oftime, by many different human authors. The Old Testament books were written from about 1440 B.C. -420 B.c.; the New Testament books from about 45 A.D. -95 A.D. There is a golden thread running throughout all ofScripture: God's plan ofsalvation for fallen humanity based on the Deliverer, His Son, who would become man. 1.2 Another reason inspiration is taught is that this is what Scripture claims for itself. The Holy Spirit has brought us to faith in Jesus through the Gospel. The Holy Spirt has caused us to believe Scripture. We believe all the teachings ofScripture, including what Scripture says about its own origin. The following are sample passages which indicate the inspiration ofthe Old Testament books, by speaking oftheir divine authority, by describing them as God-breathed, or by saying that God spoke by the Old Testament prophets (recall how many times these prophets proclaim in their writings, "Thus says the Lord ... "). Ofcourse, what is true for the Old Testament books is also true for those ofthe New. Matthew 5: 18 Mark 12:36 John 10:35 Romans 3:2 2 Timothy 3:16 (also speaking about the New Testament books written by that point in time) Hebrews 1:1-2 1 Peter 1:10-11 2 Peter 1:21 John 14:26 and 1 Corinthians 2:13, for example, indicate the inspiration ofthe New Testament books. More passages could be cited in this regard. Since Scripture comes from God, since He is The Author, we speak about the inerrancy (being without error) ofScripture. We use this term inerrancy for all of Scripture, not only those portions dealing with faith, salvation, and morals. The basic fact is that God does not make mistakes or proclaim falsehoods. Scripture is true, accurate, reliable, and authoritative because God is responsible for these words. Technically speaking, we use the term inerrancy with regard to the autographs, the original manuscripts from the inspired authors themselves (not copies made from the originals). Not all Old Testament scholars share this view of Scripture's inspiration. That is, not all hold to what Scripture says concerning its divine origin, as we do. Further, one's stance concerning inspiration determines one's approach to Scripture. Recall the discussion in the Hermeneutics course. In this course, Old Testament Isagogics, we will follow the Historical-Grammatical Method. Others, however, follow the Historical-Critical Method. By way ofreview, it should be stated that the latter method has two basic presuppositions. •
All ofhistory operates in a closed continuum; divine intervention in the affairs ofthis world must be ruled out. •
All religions are a product ofpeople's minds, and most underwent evolutionary development. This was the case for the religion ofIsrael in the Old Testament era, and this was the case for Christianity . 1.3 Those holding to the Historical-Critical Method, however, vary somewhat in their theological position, that is, how completely or consistently they hold to this method. They may be thought of as falling somewhere on a spectrum, at either end or somewhere in between. At one end are those who rule out any supernatural intervention whatsoever in this world's history. Thus they deny divine inspiration, and explain that the Bible, while a great book (in the same category as the Iliad and the Odyssey and the works ofShakespeare, for example), is only a human book, and so has errors and contradictions. They also deny all miracles, explaining that while there is some historical event ("kernel oftruth") behind the miracle story, that story took on mythic embellishment over the centuries. Those in this group pick and choose what portions ofScripture they accept as accurate and reliable (in their judgment, there are relatively few such portions). At the other end ofthe spectrum are those who will say that Scripture is inspired, but who actually hold to a watered-down viewpoint concerning inspiration (compared to the position ofthis course). They believe that parts ofScripture are inspired. They teach that portions ofScripture are accurate and reliable -especially those which deal with salvation. They will even talk about the inerrancy ofScripture, but mean by that phrase that Scripture is inerrant in its purpose -to lead people to salvation. Those in this group also pick and choose what in Scripture is accurate and reliable, and what is not. Generally, they deny, for example, that Adam and Eve were historical persons, that there was a miracle at the sea in the time ofMoses, that Christ turned water into wine, and fed the five thousand. In this there is overlap with the previous group (described in the preceding paragraph). Nevertheless, many in the second group (who believe that there was/is some divine intervention in this world's history) confess the virgin birth ofChrist, and His physical resurrection from the dead. Why they accept these miracles and not others in Scripture cannot be answered with certainty. Their position is an inconsistent one, in which they are not adhering strictly and completely to the Historical-Critical method. Further, questioning the reliability ofone portion ofScripture ultimately will affect another portion, since Scripture is inter-connected. For example, both Christ (Matthew 19:4-6) and Paul (Romans 5:12-19) assume the historicity ofAdam and Eve, and base their teachings on this assumption. The following quote from Gleason Archer is pertinent. He writes (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 28): In the last analysis, then, every man must settle for one of two alternatives: the inerrancy ofHoly Scripture, or the inerrancy ofhis own personal judgment. Ifthe Bible contains errors in the autographa, then it requires an infallible human judgment to distinguish validly between the false and the true in Scripture; it is necessary for every affirmation in the sacred text to receive endorsement from the human critic himselfbefore it may be accepted as true. Since men disagree in their critical judgments, it requires absolute inerrancy on the part of each individual to render a vaJidjudgment in each instance ... the only alternatives available to us as we confront the Scriptures [are]: either they are inerrant, or else we are. Again, this course will proceed on the basis ofthe former alternative. 1.4 2.
Transmission and Textual Criticism As mentioned earlier, we hold (technically speaking) to the inerrancy ofthe autographs (or autographa), the original manuscripts from the inspired authors themselves. Copies were made by scribes of these originals, and later, copies ofthe copies. As far as we can tell, the autographs have not been preserved for us (that they are not extant is due perhaps to manuscripts deteriorating from age, or being lost in a fire or other calamity, or for some other reason). However, Scripture was preserved by the copying, or transmission, process ofscribes. In the course oftransmission various scribal errors, or variations, crept into the text of the copies (many ofthese we can identify with from our own experience as proofreaders). Textual Criticism (or Lower Criticism) is the discipline which deals with these errors/variations in the preserved copies. Very simply, Textual Criticism studies the manuscripts that have been preserved for a book of Scripture, notes the differences in these manuscripts, and on the basis ofcertain rules (or canons) establishes how the original text read. This criticism is practiced by all those who study Scripture using the original languages, no matter what their theological position is. Textual criticism is both a science (for example, in that there are established canons) and an art. It is an art, for example, in that the text critic must decide which ofthe canons are to be applied in a particular situation, or in that the critic develops a sense ofthe style and diction of the original writer, or in that the critic weighs the manuscripts (deciding which are more valuable or accurate for a book ofScripture, and which are less valuable). The following four points put the subjects ofvariations and textual criticism into proper perspective. 1.
Only a small percentage ofthe biblical text is involved in textual criticism. It is amazing how much the preserved manuscripts are in agreement. Where there are variants, these are usually over minor points in the text (for example, "Jesus entered the boat," or "He entered the boat"). 2.
Concerning variants in the preserved manuscripts, the majority ofthese can be resolved. That is, textual critics can determine with a reasonable amount ofcertainty what the original reading was. 3.
In only relatively few passages is the original reading still uncertain. 4.
No teaching or doctrine of Scripture is affected by variations in the extant manuscripts. Again, with regard to the production of the autographs, we use the term inspiration. With regard to the copying process, through which God's Word was preserved for us, we use the phrase a remarkable divine providence. Because ofthis providence, we can use the biblical text today (especially in the original languages) with the utmost confidence and proclaim to the members of our congregations, "Thus says the Lord." 1.5 Concerning the preserved manuscripts for the Old Testament, these are usually divided into two categories: the pre-Christian manuscripts, and the post-Christian manuscripts. The pre-Christian manuscripts consist mainly ofthose discovered in caves near the Dead Sea. These are called the Dead Sea Scrolls, or the Qumran Texts (since the various caves in which they were found are located near the canyon ofthe Wady Qumran, near the northwest coast ofthe Dead Sea). The Qumran texts date from ca. the third century B.C. to the first century A.D. Ofthe post-Christian manuscripts, the most important is Leningrad Manuscript B-19A, which is dated to ca. 1010 AD. It is a faithful copy ofa manuscript dated to ca. 980 AD. (which has since been lost). B-19A furnished the basis for the standard Hebrew! Aramaic text used by Old Testament scholars today. B-19A is also known as the Masoretic Text (MT). Actually, the MT was standardized about 100 A.D., but the roots for this text go back earlier, perhaps to ca. 100 B.C. Gleason Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 65), concludes: ... we have today a fonn of the Hebrew text which in all essentials duplicates the recension which was considered authoritative in the days ofChrist and the apostles, if not a century earlier. And this in tum, jUdging from Qumran evidence, goes back to an authoritative revision ofthe Old Testament text which was drawn up on the basis ofthe most reliable manuscripts available for collation from previous centuries. These bring us very close in all essentials to the original autographs themselves, and furnish us with an authentic record ofGod's revelation. Early translations ofthe Old Testament also are used in textual criticism, that is, in attempting to establish the original text. These include the following. Greek Versions -Ofthese the most important is the Septuagint (LXX). This was produced in Alexandria, Egypt ca. 250-150 B.C. The Septuagint is preserved for us in various manuscripts and manuscript fragments. The LXX varies in quality and value (for textual criticism) from (Old Testament) book to book. At times it seems to be a literal translation ofthe Hebrew text used; at other times it seems to be more paraphrastic. Further, as Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 47) comments, "it must be remembered that the LXX text has come down to us in various and divergent fonns ... and betrays a rather low standard ofscribal fidelity in its own transmission." Aramaic Versions -During the Babylonian exile and following the Jews began to speak more and more in Aramaic, which had become the international language for diplomacy and commerce (and is very similar to Hebrew). Interpreters ofthe Hebrew text for Jewish congregations often would not simply translate into Aramaic but also would explain the message for the hearers through paraphrasing. After a period oforal tradition these Aramaic paraphrases were committed to writing starting ca. 200 A.D., and are known as Targums (targum means paraphrase or interpretation). Latin Versions -Ofthese the most important is Jerome's Vulgate, ofwhich the Old Testament portion was produced ca. 390-404 AD. The Vulgate varies as to its value for textual criticism. 1.6 Syriac Versions -The Syriac Christians began to produce a more or less standard translation ofScripture in their Eastern Aramaic dialect. Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 51-52) explains: The Aramaic spoken by the Jews ofPalestine and Babylon was ofthe Western type, and was written in the same square Hebrew characters as the Hebrew Scriptures themselves. But the Christian Aramaic speakers adopted a quite dissimilar alphabet of their own, bearing some superficial resemblances to Arabic script...The Peshitta (Le., the simple) Syriac Old Testament must have been composed in the second or third century A.D., since it was quoted already in fourth-century Syriac writings. At first the Old Testament portion was translated from the Hebrew original, but later it underwent some revision in order to make it conform more closely to the Septuagint. ..The Peshitta achieved an official status for the Syriac-speaking church when it was revised and published ... ca. A.D. 400 ... The Syriac Hexapla is the only other [partly] extant Old Testament translation ...it...was published...in A.D. 616. 3. Canonicity (the right to be included in the biblical canon, that is, the official list ofbooks of God's Word) (The sections "Source ofCanonicity" and "Criteria ofCanonicity" are taken in part from notes by Dr. Douglas Judisch.) Source of Canonicity -There are erroneous theories concerning the source ofcanonicity, which include the following. a.
From a book's antiquity. A book is venerated because of its age. However, age does not bestow canonicity. The Pentateuch as soon as it was written was regarded as canonical. The same was true for other books ofthe Old Testament. b.
The Hebrew language as a source ofcanonicity. The rationale: after the Jews began to speak Aramaic, anything written in Hebrew was regarded as canonical. This thinking is incorrect: the books 1 Maccabees, Ecclesiasticus, and Tobit were written originally in Hebrew, yet they are non-canonical. Further, the books Daniel and Ezra were written in part in Aramaic. c.
Agreement with the TorahlPentateuch (the ultimate norm and standard oftruth). However, some books agreed with the Torah but were not accepted as canonical; for example, 2 Maccabees. d.
Religious content or value determines canonicity (for some, a book's Christocentricity). However, canonicity has nothing to do with a book's purpose. Also, who determines the value ofa book? Not all canonical books talk directly about Christ. On the other hand, there are many Gospel-orientated books which are non-canonical. A book which proclaims the Gospel may contain errors and contradict canonical books. e.
The Church, or the people ofGod (in both the Old and New Testament periods), is the source ofcanonicity. A variation on this theory is that the inspired community is the source 1.7 ofcanonicity. However, ifthe Church bestows canonicity, the result is self-contradiction, since in the history ofthe canon the Church has proposed different lists of the official books. The correct understanding is that the source ofcanonicty is God. His words are supremely authoritative; because something comes from God it is infallible. Canonicity, and authority, have to do with the origin ofa book. Ifa book comes from God, it is canonicaL Another way ofsaying this is that ifa book is inspired, it is canonical. How do we know ifa book came from God? Ifthe book's author was inspired. Criteria of Canonicity -How do we know that a book came from an inspired author, from an authorized spokesman ofGod? For the Old Testament era the question could be phrased, "How do we know that an author was a genuine prophet ofGod (one who received word directly from God, and communicated it to others)?" A negative criterion was that if a book disagreed with the Torah, it was regarded as non-canonical, and its author as not a genuine prophet. Some say that the internal testimony ofthe Holy Spirit (the witness ofthe Holy Spirit in an individual's heart) isalthe criterion ofcanonicity. The logical conclusion is that a person accepts only those books as canonical which impress himlher. This position must be rejected because it is hopelessly subjective, and because God provides historical evidence for canonicity, thus rendering this internal testimony as unnecessary. The biblical criteria for canonicity may be determined from an examination ofDeuteronomy 13: 1­5 and 18:21-22. There was historical evidence for recognizing if a person was a genuine prophetJ prophetess of the Lord: a) his/hermessage agreed with previous Word ofGod, starting with the Torah, and b) he/she gave the proper sign(s) to authenticate hislher claim to be a prophet. A sign could be a supernatural wonder (e.g., the signs God gave Moses in Exodus 4) or a prediction ofa future event (which then takes place). These criteria were more helpful to the contemporaries ofthe prophets than they are to us today. For example, we cannot see the supernatural wonders ofthe prophets. A book by a prophet may actually foretell a future event, and that event may already have taken place (the prediction has been fulfilled); this would be a sign for that book. But not all the books ofthe Old Testament do this. There is also the testimony, found in Scripture, ofreliable witnesses who lived close to the time of various prophets. However, in the Old Testament there is not an abundance ofsuch testimony, except for Moses, the author ofthe Torah. There is also testimony for Micah (Jeremiah 26: 18-19), Jeremiah (Dan. 9:2), and Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 5:1). The most important criterion for us is the testimony ofChrist and His apostles. They identify as deriving from inspired writers, and thus as authoritative, both a) individual books from their contemporary Palestinian Jewish canon, and b) their whole contemporary Palestinian Jewish canon. 1.8 This canon was accepted by the Jews living in Palestine during the first century A.D. (except for the Sadducees, who accepted only the Torah). All the evidence points to the canon of Christ and His apostles being identical with the canon of the Jews ofHis day, namely, their Palestinian Jewish canon. As Edward Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 31, n.) states, there is no evidence whatever ofany dispute between Him [Jesus] and the Jews as to the canonicity ofany Old Testament book. What Christ opposed was not the Canon which the Pharisees accepted but the oral tradition which would make this Canon void. From statements in Josephus and the Talmud, it is possible to learn the extent ofthe Jewish Canon ofChrist's day. What 'Vas This Contemporary Palestinian Jewish canon? -The most important Jewish reference to the canon comes in a baraitha (a tradition from the period 70-199 AD.; some scholars, however, date this particular tradition to the first or second century B.C.) quoted in the Babylonian Talmud, in the tractate Baba Bathra (14b-15a). [[Excursus: The Talmud consists of the Mishnah and the Gemara. The Mishnah is the Hebrew code oflaws, at first transmitted orally, and then compiled in writing about 200 AD. under Rabbi Judah the Prince. The Gemara is commentary on the Mishnah. Two versions ofthe Gemara exist, one compiled in Israel (or Palestine) and the other in Babylon (where an important Jewish community had been living ever since the time ofthe Babylonian Exile). The bulk of the Gemara is written in Aramaic, the vernacular ofthe Jews ofthe time, but some traditions such as the baraithoth (plural ofbaraitha), which claim to be tannaitic (before 200 AD.), are in Hebrew. Thus there are actually two Talmuds, the Palestinian Talmud, and the Babylonian Talmud. The Gemara of the Palestinian Talmud covers the first four orders of the Mishnah which dealt with agriculture, feasts, women, and damages. It was completed in the mid-fifth century AD. The Gemara ofthe Babylonian Talmud covers the Mishnaic orders of feasts, women, damages, and sacrifices and was completed in the mid-sixth century A.D., with many additions and modifications being made in the succeeding few centuries. The Babylonian Talmud, more fully edited than the Palestinian, became authoritative for most ofJudaism because ofthe dominance of the Babylonian community well into the Islamic period. (Adapted from "Talmud," by Anthony J. Saldarini, in Harper's Bible Dictionary, 1985, p. 1016.)]] The baraitha from Baba Bathra, with the exclusion of interpolated comments, is as follows: "The order of the prophets is Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Isaiah, the Twelve [Minor Prophets]. That of the Kethubhim is Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, the roll ofEsther, Ezra, Chronicles" (from Roland K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 271). To be added at the head ofthis list, ofcourse, are the five books ofMoses (Genesis-Deuteronomy), the Torah. From this baraitba we see that the Jewish canon consisted of24 books. This list never changed over the centuries. These 24 equal the 39 ofthe Protestant Old Testament canon (the Hebrew canon has as one book our 1 and 2 Samuel, our 1 and 2 Kings, our 12 individual Minor Prophets, our Ezra and Nehemiah, and our 1 and 2 Chronicles). In this baraitha we also see implied the . traditional three-part division ofthe Jewish canon (about which more will be said later): the Torah, the Prophets, and the KethubimlKethubhim (or Writings). This baraitha goes on to assign inspired authors to all 24 books, and discusses their order. 1.9 [[Excursus: The order ofthe Latter Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve Minor Prophets) and the Kethubim varied somewhat in the history of the canon. F. F. Bruce (The Canon of Scripture, 1988, p. 30) explains: liThe order ofthe five books in the first division is fixed, because they are set in a historical framework in which each has its chronological position; this is true also ofthe four Former Prophets [Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings]. But the order ofthe books in the Latter Prophets and in the Writings was not so firmly fixed. This is inevitable when separate scrolls are kept together in a container. It is different when a number ofdocuments can be bound together in a volume ofmodem shape -a codex, to use the technical term. Here the first must precede the second and the second must precede the third, whether there is any logical or chronological basis for that sequence or not. The codex began to come into use early in the Christian era, but even after its introduction religious conservatism ensured that the Jewish scriptures continued for long to be written on scrolls. Ifthe eleven books making up the Writings ­or, to take one subdivision ofthem, the five Megill6t -were kept in one box, there was no particular reason why they should be mentioned in one order rather than another. "]] Similarly, though the exact contents ofthe canon ofthe Jewish authors Philo (ca. 20 B.C.-50 A.D.) and Josephus (ca. 37-95 A.D.) cannot be determined, no evidence suggests that the canon of Philo (On the Contemplative Life, 2.475) and the canon ofJosephus (Against Apion, 1.38-42) differed from each other or from the present Jewish-Protestant Old Testament canon. Josephus (Against Apion, 1.38-42), writing about the Jewish nation, states: For we have not an innumerable multitude of books among us, disagreeing from and contradicting one another, but only twenty-two books, which contain the records ofall the past times; which are justly believed to be divine ... Since Artaxerxes [Persian emperor, reigning ca. 465/4-425/4 B.C.] to our own time a detailed record has been made ofour history, but this has not been thought worthy of equal credit with the earlier records because there has not been since then the exact succession ofprophets. But what faith we have placed in our own writings is evident by our conduct; for though so long a time has now passed, no one has dared to add anything to them, or to take anything from them, or to alter anything in them. This statement ofJosephus indicates the following. a.
In his day there was a biblical canon, and the number ofbooks in that canon was fixed. b.
No more canonical writings had been composed since the reign ofArtaxerxes, that is, since the time ofEzra, Nehemiah, and Malachi. c.
No additional material was ever included in the canonical 22 books from the time of Artaxerxes down to Josephus' day (i.e., from ca. 425 B.C. to ca. 90 A.D.). Josephus writes about a 22-book canon. Apparently his canon involved the inclusion ofRuth with Judges (the story ofRuth took place during the period ofthe judges) and Lamentations with Jeremiah (the prophet Jeremiah probably was the author ofLamentations). An explanation for these being four separate books in the list of24 is that Ruth and Lamentations, because oftheir use in the Jewish liturgical year, were on separate scrolls (being two ofthe five Megilloth, or Scrolls, each read during particular festivals). 1.10 Therefore, the Jews had a canon, which they regarded as sacred. This canon consisted of24 books (undoubtedly equaling the 22 books mentioned by Josephus). This was the canon of Christ and His apostles. This is the canon ofthe Jews today and the Protestant Old Testament. The standard Hebrew Bible (the Masoretic Text, with text critical apparatus), used by scholars, consists ofthese 24 books. Divisions of the Canon -The standard Hebrew Bible used today has the threefold division ofthe canon: the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings. See the handout Threefold Division ofthe Old Testament, which lists the books as they occur in each division ofthe standard Hebrew Bible. The Former Prophets evidently were written by prophets. With regard to the Latter Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel are known as the Major Prophets (because ofthe length ofthese books), and the Twelve are known as the Minor Prophets (because of the brevity of each ofthese books, especially in comparison to the Major Prophets). Within the Writings, Ruth, Song ofSolomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, and Esther are known as the Megilloth, or Scrolls. Again, each, written on an individual scroll, was read during a particular feast in the Jewish religious calendar. Song ofSolomon ............. Passover
Ruth ......................... '" .... Pentecost
Lamentations ................... 9th ofAb, the day Jerusalem was destroyed in 587/6 B.C.
Ecclesiastes ...................... Tabernacles
Esther .............................. Purirn
From evidence in the Prologue to Ecclesiasticus (Ecclesiasticus is a non-canonical book) it seems that the threefold division goes back at least to the beginning ofthe second century B.C. However, exactly which books were in the Prophets and the Writings was not fixed or standardized, until after 100 A.D., jUdging from statements in Josephus. There is much evidence for assuming that early in the history ofthe canon a twofold division was in use: the Law/Torah and the Prophets (the Writings being included under Prophets). This division probably was older than the threefold division. New Testament evidence indicates that the twofold division was still in use in the first century A.D., thus existing side-by-side with the threefold division. In conclusion, it may be said that the division ofthe Hebrew Bible as it has come down to us -in three parts, with the specific books in the Prophets section and the Writings section -did not become fixed, or standardized, until after the first century A.D. Nevertheless, while the divisions ofthe canon for a time varied, the contents ofthe canon always remained the same. Questions About Books in the Canon -We may assume that the inspired books were added to the canon as soon as, or not long after, they were written. Therefore the canon was completed in the last quarter ofthe fifth century B.C., and was accepted by the great majority ofJews without question from that time forward. The older notion that the Old Testament canon was not finalized until the so-called "Council of Jarnnia" (which is usually dated to ca. 90 A.D.) has been completely refuted by recent research. Actually, very little is known about this supposed synod or council (the term "Synod" or "Council" 1.11 ofJarnnia is inappropriate). As Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 278-279) explains, after Jerusalem was destroyed .. .in A.D. 70, Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai obtained permission from the Romans to settle in Jamnia [in southwestern Judah], where he proposed to carry on his literary activities. The location soon became an established center ofScriptural study, and from time to time certain discussions took place relating to the canonicity of specific Old Testament books including Ezekiel, Esther, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Proverbs. There can be little doubt that such conversations took place both before and after this period, and it seems probable that nothing of a formal or binding nature was decided in these discussions ... the conversations seem to have centered upon the question as to whether specific books should be excluded from what was to be regarded as the Scriptural corpus ... The fact is that the works under discussion were already accorded canonical status in popular esteem, so that. ..the 'Council' was actually confirming public opinion, not forming it. The conversations that took place were strictly academic, and in consequence it is very questionable ifthe doubts that they raised in connection with certain compositions actually represented the general attitude ofthe populace as a whole to any significant extent...It ought to be concluded, therefore, that no formal pronouncement as to the limits ofthe Old Testament canon was ever made in rabbinic circles at Jarnnia. There was no formal setting of the canon at any Council or Synod ofJarnnia. Yet it must be noted that in the history of the canon some Jews, certainly not representing the general public thinking, did raise questions particularly about the canonicity of Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Esther, Ezekiel, and Proverbs. These questions were raised in the years before Christ and, as indicated in the preceding paragraph, continued into the Christian era. Norman Geisler and William Nix (A General Introduction to the Bible, pp. 236-237) explain: Immediate recognition ofa book as inspired did not thereby guarantee subsequent recognition by all ... The fact that a book had been accepted hundreds of years earlier did not guarantee that someone in succeeding generations would [n lever raise questions about it, since they did not have access to the original evidence to its prophetic credentials. Some of the questions raised were part ofa dispute which took place between two great rabbinical schools -that of Shammai, and that ofHilleL Questions were raised about Song ofSolomon because ofits descriptions of the human body and sex. Yet the Song may be interpreted as a dramatic parable, depicting God's love for His people, and His people's love for God. Questions were raised about Ecclesiastes because ofits notes ofskepticism, and hints ofhedonism. Further, it was thOUght not to agree with the Torah. However, Ecclesiastes sets forth many ways of finding the meaning oflife, but rejects them all except for the proper one, concluding, "Fear God and keep His commandments, for this is the whole duty ofman" (12:13). Questions were raised about Proverbs because ofa supposed contradiction in the book -26:4,5. However, both verses are true, each applying to a different situation. 1.12 Questions were raised about Ezekiel because of it apparent anti-Mosaical teachings (especially in the last nine chapters with the vision of the temple and city). Actually, no specific examples of Ezekiel contradicting the Torah have ever been provided. Questions were raised about Esther because the book never mentions God. Yet God certainly is in the background ofEsther. His grace, providence, and power are evident. Again, these questions did not affect the make-up of the canon. This canon of24 books (= the 39 of the Protestant Old Testament) was the canon ofChrist and the apostles. The bottom line for us is that Christ and His apostles gave their approval to this canon; they regarded the books in it as inspired and authoritative. This is seen by their statements in the New Testament concerning the canon as a whole (e.g., Scriptures, prophets, Moses and the Prophets), and by their citing from individual books. In the New Testament there are quotes from or direct allusions to all the books of the Old Testament canon, except for Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, and Nahum (but Nahum was one ofthe Twelve, which was one book). Since there were questions by some in the first century AD. concerning Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Esther, Proverbs, and Ezekiel, did Christ and His apostles also have questions about these books? Because Christ and His apostles quote from Proverbs and Ezekiel, it is clear that they regarded them as authoritative, as canonical. It is uncertain if Christ and the apostles had questions about Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. Perhaps because Jesus and the apostles cited from Proverbs and Ezekiel, this indicates that they would have also regarded Esther, Ecclesiastes, and Song ofSolomon as canonical. 4. The Apocrypha While five books were the subject ofperiodic discussion by the Jews as to their canonicity, there were no questions at all in connection with the books ofthe Apocrypha: there was agreement that they were non-canonical. Read the handout "The Apocrypha. " Combining the manuscripts and manuscript fragments ofthe Septuagint (LXX), we see that all of the books of the Apocrypha, except for 2 Esdras, are represented. That they are included in the LXX is not evidence for their canonicity. The three earliest manuscripts of the LXX show much uncertainty as to which books constitute the list ofApocrypha. They vary as to which books ofthe 15(/14) they have and do not have. Also, as Geisler and Nix (A General Introduction to the Bible, p. 268) report, no Greek manuscript has the exact list ofapocryphal books accepted by the Council ofTrent (1545-1563). In fact, it is not certain that the LXX of the first century AD. contained books ofthe Apocrypha. The earliest extant copies ofthe LXX date from ca. the fourth century AD. Though the apocryphal books might have been in the LXX ofthe first century AD., Jesus and the apostles never once quoted from them. 1.13 Some say that the presence ofthe apocryphal books in the LXX indicates the existence of a so­called Alexandrian Canon (the LXX was produced in Alexandria, Egypt) -which included these 15(/14) extra books -as opposed to the Palestinian canon, which did not have the 15. However, no one has ever proven that there was an Alexandrian Canon which was different from the Palestinian Canon. As Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 73) notes, although Philo of Alexandria (mentioned above; ca. 20 RC.-50 A.D.) quotes frequently from the canonical books ofthe 'Palestinian Canon,' he never once quotes from any of the apocryphal books...Secondly, it is reliably reported that Aquila's Greek Version [a Greek translation ofthe Old Testament, later than the LXX, published ca. 130 A.D., and surviving only in quotations and fragments] was accepted by the Alexandrian Jews in the second century A.D., even though it did not contain the Apocrypha. It is reasonable to conclude that although the books ofthe Apocrypha came to be included in the LXX, they certainly were recognized as non-canonical, but were included because they were considered valuable and edifying reading. An analogy would be Luther, while regarding the apocryphal books as non-canonical, including them in his German translation of Scripture because they were "useful and good to read." The majority of the authors ofthe apocryphal books were Greek-speaking Jews. Most of these books were written in Greek. There are two basic points which can be made concerning the value of the Apocrypha. 1.
They trace the history of the Jews during the inter-testamental era (and give us a glimpse into their culture and life during that era). In this regard, the best of the books is 1 Maccabees, which reports the fight ofthe Jews against oppression from Greco-Syrian rulers in the period ca. 175-135 RC. 2.
These books have a religious value in that they report on many heroes of the faith. These heroes suffered bravely for their faith in the true God, which included their belief in the coming Messiah and the resurrection ofthe dead. Also, the apocryphal books contain many wise summaries ofbiblical truths. The following points pertain to the non-canonicity of the books of the Apocrypha (points #2-#11 are taken from the discussion of Geisler and Nix, A General Introduction to the Bible, pp. 267­275). 1.
As already mentioned, the Jews never considered these books as inspired. 2.
Again, Jesus and the New Testament writers never quoted any of these books; they never referred to any ofthe 15(/14) as authoritative or canonical. 3.
No council of the entire Church favored the.m during the first four centuries A.D. Many ofthe Church Fathers spoke out against them, including Origen, Cyril ofJerusalem, Athanasius, and Jerome. 1.14 4.
When they began to be accepted by some Christians, it was under the questionable authority of the Church Father Augustine, who was refuted by Jerome, the biblical scholar ofhis day. 5.
The Syrian church did not accept these books until the fourth century A.D. In the second century A.D. the Syrian Bible (Peshitta) did not contain the Apocrypha. 6.
Roman Catholic scholars through the Reformation period up to 1546 made the distinction between the Apocrypha and the canon. 7.
Apocryphal books did not receive full canonical status from the Roman Catholic church until 1546 (during the counter-Reformation Council ofTrent), in an obvious polemical action against Protestantism, only twenty-nine years after Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses. These books were included because they supported such doctrines as prayers for the dead (2 Maccabees 12:45) and salvation by works (Tobit 12:9; Ecclesiasticus 3:30). 8.
Not all of the Apocrypha was accepted by the Roman Catholic church. Further, one of the books rejected by that church has a verse against praying for the dead (2 Esdras 7:105). 9.
In the books accepted by the Council ofTrent, and in the Apocrypha as a whole, there are passages which are not only unbiblical or heretical (see point #7 above), but also sub-biblical. Judith allegedly was assisted by God in a deed of falsehood (Judith 9:10, l3), and both Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom of Solomon teach a morality based on expedience. Also, books of the Apocrypha have historical, chronological, and geographical errors. 10.
The books ofthe Apocrypha are postbiblical, in that they were written after 400 B.C. As mentioned above, Josephus stated that the writings ofthe true prophets of his people ceased after the time ofArtaxerxes. The Talmud has a similar position: "After the latter prophets Haggai, Zechariah ... and Malachi, the Holy Spirit departed from Israel" (Babylonian Talmud, VII-VIII, 24, Tractate Sanhedrin). The time ofMalachi overlapped with that ofArtaxerxes. 11.
There is no claim within the Apocrypha that it is the Word of God; the Apocrypha never claims to be inspired. On the contrary, there are indications in 1 Maccabees that there were no prophets of God at the time ofthe Maccabean revolt during the intertestamental period (4:46; 9:27). The latter verse reads: "Thus there was great distress in Israel, such as had not been since the time that prophets ceased to appear among them." 12.
The Apocrypha adds nothing to our knowledge about Christ. 1.15 Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 2
1. Genesis 2. Exodus 3. Leviticus 4. The Ceremonial Law 5. Numbers Unit 2 -Old Testament Isagogics
Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: L About the isagogical matters pertaining to Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, and more about the ceremonial law . Be able to: 1.
Read these subjects with greater understanding, and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1. Skim the contents ofGenesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. 2. Unit 2 material in this student guide. 3. Dillard and Longman, pp. 37, 48-90. 4. Handout, Chronology ofPatriarchal Period 5. Handout,The Length ofthe Sojourn (Stay in Egypt) 6. Handout, Chronology ofEgyptian and Israelite History 7. Handout, Chronology ofEgyptian History 8. Handout, Date ofthe Exodus 9. Handout, The Six Blood Sacrifices Differentiated 10. Handout, The Numbers in Numbers Writing Assignments None 2.1 1. Genesis Author: Moses (more will be said about the authorship ofthis and the other four books of the Pentateuch in Unit 3). Time of Composition: Approximately during the last halfofthe 15th century B.C. Purpose: To give a brief history ofGod's dealing with mankind from the beginning ofthe universe until Jacob and the Israelites go down into Egypt. Genesis relates: • the creation ofthe world, and everything in it, including man; • the fall into sin; • the promise ofthe Deliverer, and the covenant ofgrace; • the flood; • the origin oflanguages; • the history ofthe patriarchs and their family (the covenant family, the chosen people). Contents: Chapters 1-11 Period from creation up to the time ofAbraham. 12-50 Period from the call ofAbraham to the death of Joseph (in other words, the patriarchal history). Subdivisions of the two major parts: Chapters
1-6 Period before the flood. 7 Flood. 8-11 Ending ofthe flood, and period after the flood. Chapters
12-26 Story ofAbraham and, to a lesser extent, ofIsaac. 27-36 Story ofJacob and, to a much lesser extent, ofEsau. 37-50 Story ofJoseph and, to a lesser extent, ofJacob. Chapters 1-11 set the stage for the patriarchal history, and God's covenant with Abraham. Chapter 12 and following focus on one man, Abraham, and his family. Chapters 46-50, reporting on the Israelites coming down to live in Egypt, lead naturally into the next book, Exodus. Selected Comments: Chapters 1-11 report real history. The rest of Scripture takes what is related in these chapters as historical. Chapter 3:15 presents the first Gospel ofScripture (therefore this verse is known as the Protevangelium). God promises a Deliverer, who will be a descendant ofEve (and Adam), and who will defeat the evil agent (Satan) inside the serpent. 2.2 The Bible does not have the only account of a world-wide flood. In various pieces ofextra­biblical literature there are stories that all mankind was destroyed by a great flood (usually represented as world-wide), and that a single man with his family or a few friends survived the flood by means ofsome sort ofa ship, raft, or large canoe. For example, the Babylonian Flood Account (coming from Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia) has a number ofparallels with the Genesis account. However, the differences between the accounts are more numerous and striking. That different peoples had a memory ofsuch a flood is due to a common oral tradition shared by the various branches ofthe human race, all ofwhich go back to the three sons of Noah. The totally true and accurate account is preserved only in Genesis; over the course ofcenturies inaccuracies and false theology have crept into the other accounts. The flood was universal (world-wide), and not a limited, local flood (perhaps in the Mesopotamian valley). Consider the following factors. 1.
The most natural reading ofGenesis 6-9 is to understand the flood as universal. 2.
The purpose ofthe flood was to destroy all mankind: Genesis 6:7, 17; 7:22; 1 Pet. 3:20. 3.
The purpose ofthe flood also was to destroy all animal life on dry land: Genesis 6:7, 17; 7:22. 4.
The flood covered "all the high mountains under the entire heavens": Genesis 7:19,20. 5.
The flood lasted a little over a year: Genesis 7:11,8:13-14. 6.
Other passages of Scripture indicate the flood was world-wide: e.g., Psalm 104:5-9; 2 Peter 3:5-7. 7.
The ark would have been unnecessary for Noah, the animals, and especially the birds to escape from a mere local flood. 8.
There was memory of a world-wide flood outside of Scripture, as already mentioned. Genesis 9:8-17 gives the account of God's covenant with Noah. [(Excursus: A covenant was a solemn promise accompanied by an oath, a sign, andlor a symbolic action indicating that the covenant was in effect. In the ancient Near East a covenant could be between nations (a treaty or alliance of friendship), between individuals (a pledge or agreement between, for example, a strong king and a weaker king), and between a ruler and his SUbjects. In the Old Testament we see covenants between God and a person (or people).]] Concerning God's covenant with Noah, the sign was the rainbow. This covenant seems to have been one-sided (God's). But in the other biblical formulations ofcovenants between God and man, both sides are involved. God promises to fulfill His Word, and man is committed to obedience and faithfulness to God. However, in any formulation, one side can be emphasized over the other. When the emphasis is on man's side, there are often accompanying promises of blessing (for keeping the covenant) and punishment (for breaking it). Genesis 9:25-27 is another important link in the Old Testament chain ofMessianic prophecies. This prophecy indicates that the Messianic line will continue from Noah through Shem. (This text was terribly misused in our country's history as a pro-slavery passage.) 2.3 With the patriarchal history (Genesis 12-50) approximate dates can be assigned to biblical events. See the handout "Chronology ofPatriarchal Period." Archaeological finds have shown that the customs described in Gen. 12-50 were authentic customs ofthe ancient Near East at about the same period when the patriarchs lived. One example ofa key archaeological find, as John Bright (A History ofIsrael, pp. 78-79) explains, is texts uncovered at Nuzi. These texts reflect the customary law ofa predominately Hurrian population in the East-Tigris region in the 15th century B.C. Although the Nuzi texts come from a later period and from an area where the patriarchs never lived, there is agreement that the texts embody a legal tradition that was much more widespread and ancient. Genesis 15:1-4-Abraham was going to adopt his servant Eliezer and make him his heir. Servant adoption was practiced at Nuzi: childless couples would adopt a son who would serve them as long as they lived and then inherit their property when they died. Ifa natural son was born after the adoption, the adopted son would have to yield the right of inheritance. Genesis 16: 1-4-Sarah gave her handmaid Hagar to Abraham so that he could have a son by Hagar (think also ofRachel and Leah giving their handmaids to Jacob). At Nuzi a marriage contract obliged a wife, if she remained childless, to provide her husband with a substitute. Various events in the Jacob-Laban stories are illustrated by Nuzian customs. Genesis 12:1-3,7 (13:14-16; 15:1-6,7-21; 17:1-19; 18:9-14; 22:15-18) relates God's covenant with Abraham (God's side is emphasized). God promises that: • Abraham will have a son;
• that Abraham's descendants will be numerous;
• that his descendants will possess the Land ofCanaan; and
• that in Abraham all peoples will be blessed.
This last promise is another important link in the Messianic chain, indicating that the Messiah
will be a descendant of Abraham. The main sign ofthe covenant is circumcision (Genesis 17).
This covenant (particularly the promises ofnumerous descendants, possession of Canaan, and the
universal blessing) was renewed with Isaac and Jacob. The Messianic line continues through
them, and not through Ishmael and Esau.
Notice how God led Abraham along on his spiritual journey, at just the right times speaking to the patriarch for the strengthening of his faith. In these chapters we see Abraham as both saint and sinner. The climax ofhis spiritual journey is in Genesis 22 (see Hebrews 11:17-19). Notice also the character development in Jacob and Joseph. Genesis 49:8-12 relates the blessing Judah received from Jacob. This is another important link in the Messianic chain, indicating that the Messiah will be a descendant ofJudah. At the end ofGenesis the Israelites come down to live in the land ofGoshen in northeastern Egypt. This had the benefit ofpreventing their intermarrying with the Canaanites (and with the Egyptians). Also, Goshen was a good land for them in which they could grow as a people. Much more will be said about this first book ofScripture in the Genesis course. 2.4 2.
Exodus Author: Moses (more will be said about the authorship ofthis and the other four books ofthe Pentateuch in Unit 3). Time of Composition: Approximately during the last half ofthe 15th century B.C. Purpose: This book relates the freeing ofthe Israelites from Egyptian slavery and their traveling to Mt. Sinai, where they received legislation from God. As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 62) explains, Exodus serves as a connecting link between the preparatory history contained in Genesis and the remaining books ofthe Torah. Contents: Chapters 1-19 (as described by Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 62): a.
The book begins with a brief statement ofthe rapid growth ofthe Israelites. b.
Exodus describes preparations for the exodus. 1.
Negative: the people were prepared for deliverance by the hard bondage imposed on them, causing them to long for freedom. 2. Positive: the people were prepared by the mighty miracles which God performed on their behalf, convincing them that He was indeed the Lord, their covenant-redeemer. God's covenant name: Yahweh. c.
The book gives the account ofthe exodus, the miracle at the sea, and the journey to Mt. Sinai. Chapters 20-40: d.
Exodus has a legal section (legislation given by God). After delivering them from slavery God makes a covenant with the Israelites to be His nation. Actually, God is renewing the covenant He made with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, on a national basis. He organizes them into the theocratic nation, the nation ruled by Yahweh. He gives them laws necessary for such organization, to maintain them as His covenant people. God promises to bring them to Canaan, and the people promise to be obedient to the laws of the covenant. Laws God gave to Israel are seen in the remaining three books ofthe Pentateuch. Altogether, the legislation ofthe Torah consists ofthree parts: 1.
that given at Mt. Sinai (Exodus, Leviticus); 2. that given in the wilderness wandering (Numbers); 3. that delivered/reviewed in the plains ofMoab (Deuteronomy). e.
Exodus 32 recounts how the people were unfaithful to the covenant. Selected Comments: The legislation given at Sinai (Chapters 20-40) consisted ofthe moral law (exemplified by the Ten Commandments), the civil law (guidelines concerning the people living with one another in the Israelite society), and the ceremonial law. The ceremonial law in Exodus included 2.5 instructions concerning the tabernacle, the priesthood, and the ark ofthe covenant. The ark, placed in the tabernacle (in the Holy ofHolies), was the most sacred object in the religion of Israel. The cover of the ark was called the atonement cover (some translations: the mercy seat). The ark represented the presence ofGod; God was present in a special way above the ark. More will be said about the ceremonial law ofthe Pentateuch as a whole at the end of this unit. Archer (A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, p. 220) notes that Exodus relates how God fulfilled His ancient promise to Abraham by multiplying his descendants into a great nation, redeeming them from the land ofbondage, and renewing the covenant ofgrace with them on a national basis. At the foot of the holy mountain, He bestows on them the promises of the covenant and provides them with a rule of conduct by which they may lead a holy life, and also with a sanctuary in which they may make offerings for sin and renew fellowship with Him on the basis of forgiving grace. Read the handout "The Length ofthe Sojourn (Stay in Egypt)." The plagues were mighty miracles ofGod, not simply natural disasters. Remember that most of these plagues did not affect the Israelites. and they happened exactly when Moses said they would happen. There have been studies ofthe plagues which compare them to the religion and gods of the Egyptians, and which propose that the plagues were blows to the beliefs ofthe Egyptians. Pharaoh had asked, "Who is Yahweh, that I should obey him and let Israel go [Exodus 5:2]?" The God ofIsrael seemed to him to be a weak god, judging from the fact that His people were slaves; the Egyptian gods must be much stronger. Indeed, Yahweh showed Pharaoh and the Egyptians who He was. Later, God said that Pharaoh's rule was to the end that God's power might be demonstrated and that God's name might be know throughout all the earth (Exodus 9: 16). That this was accomplished is shown by the Philistines' repeated mention of these plagues some four hundred years later, in Palestine (1 Samuel 4:7-9; 6:5-6). Compare also Joshua 2:10. The route ofthe exodus is for the most part uncertain, as also is the location ofMt. Sinai. The large body ofwater where the miracle took place probably was not the Red Sea (Gulf ofSuez). as that sea appears on our maps today. The following are reasons for consideration. a. The Gulf of Suez is too far south for leaving Egypt. b. Exodus
13:20 -14:3, and Numbers 33:6-8, imply that the body of water divided between productive Egyptian soil and the desert. If the Israelites went as far south as the Gulfof Suez, they would have encountered much desert before reaching the body of water. c.
When the Israelites crossed through the body of water, they were in the desert of Shur (Exodus 15:22), in the northwest part of the Sinai peninsula, which is not as far south as the Gulfof Suez. The miracle may have taken place at the Bitter Lakes, or Lake Timsah (both north ofthe Gulfof Suez on modem maps). The Bitter Lakes (and also Lake Timsah?) perhaps were an extension of the GulfofSuez in Moses' day. Read the handouts "Chronology ofEgyptian and Israelite History," "Chronology of Egyptian 2.6 History," and "Date of the Exodus." The following are theological truths which can be drawn from Exodus. 1.
God acts. He does the delivering (via the plagues, and the miracle at the sea), by His almighty power. 2.
God acts in grace. He shows undeserved kindness toward Israel. 3.
In His grace God is keeping His promises to Abraham (Genesis 15). At the same time, God is working out His plan ofsalvation (first set forth in Genesis 3: 15). God fulfills all His promises. 4.
Faith is founded on historical reality, it is rooted in history. God shows Himself as the God ofgrace and the faithful God. He also demonstrates that He is Lord of all the earth. The plagues are proof ofHis superiority to the Egyptian gods. Further, the Israelites "spoiled" the Egyptians (Exodus 3:21-22; 11:2-3; 12:35-36). Egypt was one ofthe greatest powers in the world at this time. 5.
God's demonstrations of His grace, faithfulness, and power are the background for His giving the law to Israel at Mt. Sinai. He is the Almighty Ruler ofthe universe, and so has the right to command. He delivers, and there can be fellowship with Him, because of His grace. Thus, the basis ofthe Sinaitic legislation is God's grace. These regulations are guidelines for how God wants His covenant people to live, setting them apart to worship and serve Him. These covenant laws reminded the people oftheir special relationship with God, which they had because ofHis grace. Also, many ofthese laws reminded them specifically of the coming Savior. Because ofGod's grace, and through His Gospel Word, they not only had saving faith, but also the power to live as God's people. 6.
Ifdeliverance is due to God's grace and power, it is not due to man's works. Man contributes nothing; this is seen in the exodus event, this is also the case for spiritual deliverance. People are saved from hell and given everlasting life simply by grace through faith -faith in the one, true God who is revealed in His Word, and in His actions in history. 7. God is gracious and loving, but also holy and righteous. The latter two attributes are seen especially in His dealings with the Egyptians. 8.
God can use the same action, or event, for two purposes. a. With the plagues, God revealed Himselfto Israel as the covenant God, able to accomplish anything, including their deliverance from slavery. Yet these plagues also were judgments on the Egyptians. b. Again, the miracle at the sea was deliverance for the Israelites and judgment for the Egyptians. 9. The Passover event (the slain lamb, the shed blood) pointed ahead to the work ofChrist, 2.7 who is the Paschal Lamb (1 Corinthians 5:7). Christ institutes the Lord's Supper during the Passover meaL 10. Hosea 11: 1 indicates that the exodus event was prophetic of what would happen in the life of Christ. Therefore the exodus is a type. (Review the discussion ofHosea 11: 1 in the Hermeneutics course). 11. Many years after the time ofMoses, the prophet Isaiah recalls the exodus from Egypt and the events in the wilderness in his foretelling the release ofIsraelite exiles from their Babylonian captivity and their return to Judah (Isaiah 43:14-21; 48:17-21). 12. The apostle Paul refers to the Israelites' passing through the sea as a baptism into Moses (1 Corinthians 10: 1-6). This was a type, ofwhich Christian baptism is the anti type. See the discussion ofR. C. H. Lenski in his commentary The Intemretation ofSt. Paul's First and Second Epistles to the Corinthians (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1937), pp. 389-397. 13. The author ofHebrews refers to the exodus, the wilderness wandering, and the entry into Canaan when writing about people entering (or not entering) God's kingdom (Hebrews 3:7 ­4:13). 14. The Ten Commandments are still in effect today, having carried over from the Old Testament into the New Testament era. 3. Leviticus Author: Moses.
Time of Composition: Approximately during. the last half of the 15th century B.C.
Purpose: As seen in Exodus, the Israelites at Sinai had been formally organized into the
covenant nation, into a nation ruled by Yahweh (a theocracy). The basic law had been given and
the tabernacle had been erected, the place where God dwelt among His people. However, before
the Israelites could continue their journey to the Promised Land, they needed additional laws
regarding worship in the tabernacle and the life of faithfulness to Yahweh. Leviticus contains
these laws. Thus, Leviticus presupposes for its correct understanding the contents ofExodus.
(Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 75)
Contents:
Chapters 1-16
Most ofthe chapters record laws concerning the removal ofthe people's moral, physical, and
ceremonial defilement (uncleanness).
Chapters 17-27
These chapters contain laws summarizing and illustrating the behavior appropriate to the
2.8 purified people of God. The first major section can be subdivided as follows. Chapters 1-7 These chapters deal with the various kinds ofsacrifices, or offerings. Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 81) explains: "Sacrifices serve a two-fold end, that ofexpiation and that ofconsecration. It will be seen, therefore, that sacrifice, particularly as it serves the end of expiation, has to do with sin. In the Bible, sacrifices are regarded as offerings, Le., that which is brought near to the Lord, gifts ofholiness. These holy gifts are brought to the altar where the Lord dwells, and the Lord directly consumes the sacrifices. This, ofcourse, must be understood symbolically and not in any crass, naturalistic sense." Everything brought to the Lord as an offering had to be ceremonially clean. With regard to the animal kingdom, oxen (lcattle), sheep, goats, doves, and pigeons might be sacrificed; from the vegetable kingdom, grain, wine, and oils. An animal sacrifice was offered up in the place of, or as a substitute for, the sinner(s). The slaying of the animal, and the animal's blood, did not, of course, actually atone for sin. Rather, the sacrifice pointed ahead to (foreshadowed) the Sacrifice to come, the shedding ofwhose blood would actually atone for the sins ofthe whole world. Through the animal sacrifice, and through faith in what the sacrifice symbolized, the Old Testament believer received forgiveness ofsins. It was never a matter of the offerer "earning" forgiveness simply by going through a mechanical act (sacrificing an animal to God). The sacrifice had to be accompanied by a truly repentant, believing heart. Further, the fruit offaith was the life ofrepentance and godliness. More will be said about the sacrifices in the next section ofthis unit, "The Ceremonial Law." Chapters 8-10 These chapters record the institution ofthe Aaronic priesthood. Chapters in Exodus also dealt with the priesthood. Chapters 11-16 These chapters contain laws concerning purification, and climax in the chapter (16) describing the Day ofAtonement, the most solemn day ofthe whole year, when ritual atonement was made for the entire nation. Selected Comments: As the chosen people of God, Israel was set apart from the unbelieving, idolatrous world unto the service and worship ofYahweh (Archer, ASurvey of Old Testament Introduction, p. 240). This was one purpose for the covenantal laws: to maintain Israel's holiness (that is, the nation's being separated out for sacred purposes). 2.9 Leviticus shows that access to, and fellowship with, God was maintained on the basis of substitutionary atonement. By the shedding ofthe blood ofthe sacrifice an "innocent" life was substituted for the life ofthe guilty person(s) (Archer, A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 240). Thus, fellowship with God was made possible by God's grace alone, through faith. Again, through faith in the coming Sacrifice, Who was symbolized in sacrifices ofthe Mosaic covenant, an Old Testament believer had forgiveness and everlasting life. The way ofsalvation is the same in both testaments: by grace through faith. In the Old Testament era, they believed in the Messiah (Savior) to come; in the New Testament era, we believe in the Messiah who has come. As the holy, covenant people the Israelites were required to abstain from all sexual unchastity, and to avoid contact with corruption and decay (such as corpses or defiling disease). As Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 241) points out, "these provisions are to be understood as giving expression to a fundamental attitude oflove toward God and man. The second great commandment as defined by the Lord Jesus (Matthew 22:39) was derived from Leviticus 19:18: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.'" Nothing unclean, corrupt, or liable to speedy decay could be presented as an offering to God. This, then, excluded leaven, milk (which quickly sours), and honey (which ferments) (Archer, A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 241). The Hebrew religious calendar was dominated by the number seven (symbolizing God interacting with humanity), as outlined by Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 241). a.
Every seventh day was a sabbath. b.
Every seventh year was a sabbath year ofrest for the crop-bearing land. c.
After seven sevens ofyears the fiftieth year was hallowed as a jubilee. d.
The Passover was held on the evening ofthe fourteenth day ofthe month Abib. e.
The Feast ofUnleavened Bread was celebrated for the next seven days after Passover. f.
The Festival ofPentecost was celebrated seven weeks and one day after Passover. g.
The seventh month, Tishri, especially was hallowed by three observances: the Feast of Trumpets, the Day ofAtonement, and the Feast ofTabernacles. h.
The Feast ofTabernacles was celebrated seven days, plus an eighth day for the final convocation. The moral laws, best summed up in the Ten Commandments, are still in force for the Church of the New Testament era because God's moral nature does not change (cf. Romans 13:9). 4. The Ceremonial Law At this point, after having examined Leviticus, it is appropriate to have an extended discussion of the ceremonial law, taking into consideration what is seen in Leviticus, but also in the books Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The ceremonial law included the guidelines concerning •
how Israel was to worship Yahweh, and 2.10 •
the lifestyle ofthe Israelites (e.g., laws concerning cleanliness and diet). This ceremonial law was ofa different kind and on a different level than the moral law. In the Pentateuch the ceremonial laws and moral laws are to a certain extent mixed together, although there are passages where one type clearly stands forth in its context: e.g., Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21 (moral), and Leviticus 1-7, 11-17 (ceremonial). The distinction between the two types came especially when people, having fulfilled the ceremonial guidelines, did not follow through with obedience to the moral law. Cf.l Samuel 15:22, Amos 5:21-24, Micah 6:6­8, and Isaiah 1:11-17. The New Testament also clearly distinguishes between the two types, indicating that while the moral is still in effect (e.g., Romans 13:9), the ceremonial came to an end with Christ accomplishing His redeeming work (e.g., Colossians 2:16-17, and many passages in the book Hebrews). The ceremonial law, as well as the civil law, as part ofthe covenant, were not an option for the Israelites. Thus God had requirements ofHis people in the Old Testament period which are not in effect today. Nevertheless, the covenant, and God's having fellowship with Israel, were from God's grace. As discussed earlier, an Old Testament believer had forgiveness and everlasting life by grace through faith (just as we, who are still bound to the moral law , do). Various purposes ofthe ceremonial law (some overlapping) have already been indicated and can now be summarized. 1.
It was through the means ofthe ceremonies, particularly the animal sacrifices, that God granted, out ofHis grace, His forgiveness, His imputed righteousness. See, for example, Leviticus 6:2-7. This was not unlike a believer today receiving forgiveness through the means ofthe Lord's Supper. Ofcourse, the people also had forgiveness apart from the ceremonies, through faith. 2.
Certain aspects ofthe ceremonial law foreshadowed the person and work ofJesus Christ. More will be said about the animal sacrifices. 3.
The ceremonial law served as a means by which faith in the coming Savior could be exhibited, before His actual incamation (J. Barton Payne, The Theology ofthe Older Testament, p. 351). However, the ceremonies had effectiveness only as they showed a person's faith. They had value for a person only ifhe/she believed in what the ceremonies symbolized. The sacrifices of unbelievers, who were not repentant, were an abomination to God: e.g., Proverbs 15:8; 21:27. 4.
Another purpose ofthe ceremonial law was to keep the Israelites as a people separated unto Yahweh, to worship and serve Him. The Israelites were to keep separate from the surrounding pagan, Gentile peoples in that they were not to adopt the wicked practices of these Gentiles, disregard God's covenant, and so lose their spiritual heritage. Thus the ceremonial law served to express the holiness ofthose who were in fellowship with Yahweh, of those who were separated out from the profane. The ceremonial law was quite complex, but God knew what was necessary to maintain the Israelites as His special people. 2.11 Review the discussion in the Hermeneutics course concerning the tabernacle and the sacred items associated with the tabernacle, including the ark of the covenant. One part of the ceremonial law was regulations dealing with cleanness and uncleanness, and related regulations. 1.
Some things are classified as unclean for hygienic reasons: e.g., infectious skin diseases (Leviticus 13-14). 2.
Certain laws are in part a safeguard against bodily injury: e.g., Leviticus 19:28. 3.
Certain insects and animals were naturally loathsome as far as food is concerned: e.g., Leviticus 11 :20, 41. 4.
Ethical matters apparently entered into some ofthe prohibitions regarding uncleanness: e.g., Deuteronomy 22:5 (which may be a safeguard against homosexuality). 5.
Humanitarian reasons seem to be partly involved in prohibitions regarding uncleanness: e.g., Leviticus 12 (to give a woman the chance to recover from the labor ofchild birth). 6.
Some regulations apparently were given simply to emphasize the idea ofIsrael being a holy people, and needing to avoid anything that might have pagan connotations: e.g., Leviticus 19:19, Exodus 23:19b. Concerning clothing made oftwo kinds of material, Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 241) thinks this symbolized a commingling of the holy and the profane. Indeed, some ofthese laws overlap from one category into another. The priests served at God's altars, offered up sacrifices for the people, and made intercession for the people to God. Following are other matters concerning the priesthood, as outlined by Payne, The Theology ofthe Older Testament, p. 373. 1.
The priests were expected, in personal living, to set an example of faithfulness to God's will. 2.
The High Priest had the Urim and Thumim, by which God gave decisions to the Israelites: e.g., Exodus 28:30; Numbers 27:21. (The Urim and Thumim may have been superseded by prophetic oracles after the time of David.) 3.
The priests were responsible for teaching the Word of God: e.g., Leviticus 10:11; Micah 3:11; Malachi 2:7. At Mt. Sinai God restricted the legitimate priesthood to the family and descendants ofAaron, who was ofthe tribe ofLevi (Exodus 28:1; 40:12-15; Leviticus 6:14 -7:36; Numbers 16 -17). Aaron was the first high priest. The four sons ofAaron were designated as priests. Two of Aaron's sons were slain by the Lord for violating their office (Leviticus 10: 1-2), leaving the other two sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, as priests. Descendants ofthese two men were regarded as divinely authorized priests (the priesthood was hereditary). The high priesthood continued 2.l2 through Eleazar. Another, lower rank oftabernacle worker consisted ofthe Levites, fellow tribesmen ofthe Aaronic priests (Numbers 8:13-14; 18:2-6). The Levites were assistants to the Aaronic priests. Especially according to the Book ofHebrews (e.g., Hebrews 8:1), the Old Testament priesthood was a type ofChrist, who was (and is) Prophet, Priest, and King. The priests offered sacrifices; Christ offered a sacrifice, the sacrifice that actually atoned for the sins ofthe world. The priests made intercession for the people; Christ intercedes for His people (e.g., Romans 8:34). Because the priesthood was typical of Christ, the priests had to be without defect (Leviticus 21 :17-23). Review the discussion in the Hermeneutics class concerning the Day ofAtonement (yom kippur). With regard to animal sacrifices and ceremonial atonement, the Hebrew word for atonement comes from the verb kafar, which has the root meaning to cover. The idea with atonement is that the punishment that is due the sinner is transferred to another covering object. With ceremonial atonement the animal was slain by the shedding ofits blood, depicting God's judgment ofdeath as the punishment for sin. Each stage ofthe sacrificial ceremony typified some aspect ofthe atoning work ofChrist (Hebrews 10:11-12), as outlined by Payne (The Theology ofthe Older Testament, pp. 383-385). 1.
Only an animal without defect, unblemished, could be offered to Yahweh (Leviticus 22:21). Cf. 1 Peter 1:19. Only One who was holy, perfectly pure, without any imperfection, could bear the sins ofothers. 2.
In the ritual the offerer, the one who brought the animal, placed his hand on the head ofthe animal (e.g., Leviticus 1 :4). This depicted symbolical transfer ofguilt, from the guilty one (the offerer) to the innocent one (the animal). Thus the animal was the symbolical substitute for the offerer. Christ was made to be sin for us (2 Corinthians 5:21). 3.
Then the animal was slain, in the sinner's stead. The blood symbolized the life ofthe animal: Leviticus 17:11. Again, this pointed ahead to Christ's sacrifice (which, however, took place only once). 4.
The sacrificed life was then committed to God by sprinkling and burning on the altar: e.g., Leviticus 1 :6-9; Exodus 24:6. Cf. Ephesians 5:2. 5.
There was a ceremonial indication that God's fellowship with men was maintained. Some of the sacrificial blood could be gathered and sprinkled over the people (e.g., Exodus 24:6,8). A communion meal followed certain sacrifices (e.g., Leviticus 7:15-18; 19:6-8; cf. Exodus 24:11). Payne (The Theology ofthe Older Testament, p. 384) explains: "The eating ofthe sacrifice served as a tangible proofofreconciliation, as God and the ... sinner sat down together at the same table." Concerning the blood sacrifices, see the handout tiThe Six Blood Sacrifices Differentiated" 2.13 (taken from Archer, A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 244). Taking all the sacrifices together (including those which were non-bloody), more than one could be involved in a particular situation. Cf. Leviticus 14:10-20. Circumcision was part ofthe ceremonial law, but it was instituted already in the time of Abraham (Genesis 17). Circumcision was practiced by other nations besides Israel. For example, among the Egyptians the operation was performed on a boy about thirteen years old, probably being used as a puberty rite marking the passage of a son to the privileges ofmanhood. God told Abraham that the males who would be born in the future were to be circumcised when they were eight days old, thus removing circumcision from a puberty rite and making it an act with strictly religious significance. This practice ofinfant circumcision by the Israelites seems to have been unique in the ancient Near East. The following points summarize the significance of circumcision. 1.
It depicted mankind's natural unfitness before God. Cf. Leviticus 26:41; Deuteronomy 10:16; Jeremiah 4:4. 2.
Circumcision was a mark ofsubmission to the will ofGod. 3.
The covenant was connected to circumcision; circumcision was the seal of the covenant God made with Abraham, and with his descendants. God told Abraham (and Israel as a whole) concerning this shedding ofblood, "This is my covenant" (Genesis 17:10). Under ordinary circumstances, for a male to have covenantal fellowship with Yahweh, he had to be circumcised (Genesis 17:9-13; Exodus 12:44,48)). To neglect circumcision was a very serious offense (Exodus 4:24-26); it actually was a breaking ofthe covenant (Ezekiel 44:7). God said to Abraham that any man who refused to be circumcised was to be cut off from the people, and he would not be living under the covenant (Genesis 17:14). Again, male babies were circumcised when they were eight days old (that is, as soon after birth as was practical). This had a two-fold significance. 1.
This showed humanity'S need for regeneration and salvation from the time ofbirth. 2.
This showed that babies and little children could be among the saved, that they could have saving faith. Circumcision put the male babies under the covenant ofgrace, it brought them into covenantal fellowship with Yahweh. Another way ofsaying this is that through circumcision the male babies were brought to faith. Thus, circumcision can be considered to have been an Old Testament sacrament. Colossians 2:11-12 indicates that baptism has supplanted the Old Testament sacrament ofcircumcision. This, then, is one reason why we practice infant baptism today -as male babies were circumcised in the Old Testament period, so babies (male and female) are to be baptized today. God certainly included Israelite female infants and little girls under His covenant by a method not revealed to us. That they also had saving faith is indicated in Mark 10: 13-16. On the basis ofthis understanding Francis Pieper (Christian Dogmatics, VoL 3, p. 278; St. Louis: Concordia, 2.14 1953) writes: Are children ofChristians who die without Baptism saved? There is some basis for the hope that God has a method, not revealed to us, by which He works faith in the children of Christians dying without Baptism, as certainly He did in the case of girls in the Old Testament (Mark 10:13-16). For children ofun believers we do not venture to hold out such a hope. We are here entering the field of the unsearchable judgments of God (Romans 11:33). There arose a perversion ofthe true spiritual significance of circumcision in Israel. For some it became an automatic guarantee ofsalvation, even for a male beyond the stage of infancy and early childhood who did not have saving faith. As a person's baptism does not save him or her if that person is an unbeliever, so it was for circumcision. For those whose hearts were in rebellion against the Lord, the external ceremony was not to be considered as mechanically effective, just as hypocritical offering up of sacrifices was not effective before God. See, for example, Jeremiah 9:25-26. Concerning ceremonial times, the Sabbath day regulation was part ofthe moral law in that: a.
it guaranteed to men and animals a needed day of rest from labor (Exodus 23:12; Deuteronomy 5:12, 14-15), and b.
it was a day ofspecial religious assembly (Leviticus 23 :3). It was part ofthe ceremonial law in that: a.
the seventh day was to be observed, and b. it symbolized both God's "resting" after creation (Exodus 20: 11; 31: 17) and the future rest anticipated by those under the covenant (psalm 95:11; Hebrews 3:16 -4:11). With regard to ceremonial times, Payne (The Theology ofthe Older Testament, p. 400) further explains: At Sinai God also ordained a series ofseven special 'convocation sabbaths' in the calendar ofIsrael. These sabbaths were days ofrest from labor and ofspecial sacrifices. They were to be observed in connection with the five Mosaic annual feasts: passover, pentecost, trumpets, the day of atonement, and tabernacles. The first and the last of these feasts, moreover, were assigned two such convocation sabbaths (Levitcus. 23:7, 8, 35, 36). Every seventh year was a sabbatic year, when land lay fallow, debts were canceled and Israelite servants were freed (Exodus 23:10-11; Leviticus 25:1-7; Deuteronomy 15:1-15, 31:10-13). The last aspect especially symbolized the freedom the Messiah would acquire. Once every fifty years was the jubilee year, which had features ofa sabbatic year, plus the requirement ofreturning all properties to the original possessing families (Leviticus 25). Concerning the five annual feasts (see, e.g., Leviticus 23), three ofthem were pilgrimage feasts: passover and unleavened bread, pentecost, and tabernacles. Every adult male was expected to travel to the central sanctuary and appear before the Lord (Exodus 23: 14-17). 2.15 Concerning purposes of the annual festivals, the following are brief comments (based on Exodus 23:14-17,34:18-24; Leviticus 16,23:4-44; Numbers 28:16 -29:40; and Deuteronomy 16:1-17), in addition to those already made. See also the Concordia Self-Study Bible, pp. 102 and 176. 1.
Passover (Abib 14) and Unleavened Bread (Abib 15-21): to commemorate Israel's deliverance from Egyptian bondage, and the hardship ofthe hurried flight from Egypt. 2.
WeekslPentecostfHarvest (seven weeks and one day after the Passover; Sivan 6): to dedicate to God the firstfruits ofthe wheat harvest. Recognizing Yahweh as the source of daily bread. 3.
Trumpets (Tishri 1): may have marked, at least originally, the new year's day ofthe Hebrews. To "remind" the Lord ofthe needs ofHis people. 4.
Day ofAtonement (Tishri 10): day ofnational repentance, ofIsrael humbling itselfbefore God. 5.
TabernaclesIBoothslIngathering (Tishri 15-21): to commemorate the Exodus and wilderness wandering, when Israel camped in the wilderness under the leadership ofMoses; and, to rejoice in the completion ofall the harvests. Recognizing Yahweh as the source of daily bread. One other element in the ceremonial law should be mentioned: tithing. The tithe was a tenth part ofone's yearly income set aside for certain purposes. This practice was common throughout the ancient Near East, and was practiced for both sacred and secular reasons. In the Old Testament tithing was done for sacred purposes. The patriarchs practiced tithing, before the Mosaic legislation (Genesis 14:20; 28:22). This tithing was voluntary on the part ofthe patriarchs. Tithing became mandatory with the Mosaic covenant. Leviticus 27:30-33 tells what is to be tithed (the description fits an agricultural community). The tithes were to be given to the Levites, the workers at the tabernacle (Numbers 18:21-32). The tithe would serve as compensation for the Levites' non-participation in the tribal distribution ofthe Land of Canaan. The Levites would then give a tithe oftheir income (Numbers 18:26), which would be used in part for the support of Israel's priests. The tithes were to be given at the central sanctuary (the tabernacle): Deuteronomy 12:1-14; 14:22-27. There are, however, complexities regarding the laws oftithing, including a question about how many tithes Israel was expected to pay. Passages relevant to the discussion are Leviticus 27:30­34; Numbers 18:21-32; Deuteronomy 12:1-14; 14:22-29; 26:12-15. Throughout the history ofIsrael it appears that the Israelites vascillated between two extremes with regard to tithing. 1.
The tithe could be overpaid and become a basis offalse religious security, being seen as a bribe to compensate for a'faithless life. 2.
The extreme which was more common was not paying the tithe, but neglecting it. As a result, the Levites would have to find secular employment and the worship life carried on at 2.16 the central sanctuary would suffer. Underlying the practice oftithing was the principal ofstewardship, which carries over into the New Testament era. Payne (The Theology of the Older Testament, pp. 434-435) outlines the following concepts involved in tithing and stewardship. 1. All things come from God and belong to God. 2.
People are simply managers, stewards ofwhat is God's. 3.
God only requires a portion, out ofHis grace. Offerings are only tokens, just a tiny portion ofthe whole to which God is entitled. Read Malachi 3:8-10. Today God does not demand a tenth portion, but He does request stewardship of His people, and their giving willingly,joyfully, for the work of His kingdom. 5.
Numbers Author: Moses. Time ofComposition:· Approximately during the last halfof the fifteenth century B.C. Purpose: To relate the history ofIsrael from the departure of the nation from Mt. Sinai to events which took place in the plains ofMoab shortly before the last speeches (in Deuteronomy) and death of Moses. Contents: (as outlined by Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 84-91). Chapters 1: 1 -10:10 The preparations which were made for the departure from Sinai. Chapters 10: 11 -21 :35 The departure from Sinai, the journey to the border of Canaan, the rebellion, the wilderness wandering, and the journey to the plains ofMoab. Chapters 22:1 -36:13 Events in the plains ofMoab. Selected Comments: Historical narrative occupies a larger proportion ofthis book than is the case in Leviticus or Deuteronomy. Review especially the following chapters: a.
13-14 (the rebellion at the border ofCanaan, and consequent judgment from God); b.
16 (the rebellion ofKorah, Dathan, and Abiram against the priesthood established by God); c.
20 (the death of Miriam; the sin ofMoses and Aaron; the death ofAaron); d.
21 (vv. 4-9; cf. John 3:14); e.
22-24 (the Balaam story); f.
32,34 (taking possession ofthe Promised Land east ofthe Jordan, and distributing it to two and one-half tribes; see also Deuteronomy 2:24 -3:20). 2.17 Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 246) has this pertinent observation: The spiritual lesson enforced throughout the book is that God's people can move forward only so far as they trust His promises and lean upon His strength. The tragedy ofKadesh­barnea [the rebellion and consequent wilderness wandering] was the unavoidable consequence ofunbelieL.The purpose ofthe census prior to the failure at Kadesh (Numbers 1-4) and of the census of the later generation at the plains of Moab (Numbers 26) was to show that they were not kept out ofCanaan by their insufficient numbers. Itwas not the size oftheir army that mattered, but only the size oftheir faith. Although no more numerous than their fathers, the younger generation was able to conquer the Canaanites because they were willing to trust God all the way and to obey His marching orders (in a way that their fathers failed to do at Kadesh-barnea). Read the handout "The Numbers in Numbers." Numbers shows God's care for His people. He wonderfully provided for their physical needs. See Deuteronomy 8:4. Numbers shows that God's redemptive plan will prevail, despite the people's sinfulness. 2.18
Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 3
1. Deuteronomy 2. Authorship of the Pentateuch A. The Reasons for the Position that Moses Authored the Pentateuch. B. The Historical Development ofthe Documentary Hypothesis. C. A Summary of the Reasons for the Development of, and A Brief
Description of, the Documentary Hypothesis.
D. A Response to the Documentary Hypothesis in the Form ofGeneral Comments. E. A Response to the Documentary Hypothesis in the Form of Specific Comments. Unit 3 -Old Testament Isagogics Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: 1.
The isagogical matters pertaining to Deuteronomy, and the issue of authorship ofthe Pentateuch (or Pentateuchal Criticism). Be able to: 1.
Read these subjects with greater understanding and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1.
Skim the contents ofDeuteronomy. 2.
Unit 3 material in this student guide 3.
Dillard and Longman, pp. 91-106,38-48. 4.
Handout, Young, pp. 41-45, 107-154. Writing Assignments None 3.1 1. Deuteronomy Author: Moses. Time of Composition: Approximately during the last halfof the 15th century B.C. Purpose: To give a record of Moses' last speeches/discourses to the Israelites (in the plains of
northern Moab), his death, and events after his death.
Contents:
Chapters 1:1 -4:43
The first discourse ofMoses. To a large extent this functions as a historical prologue for what
follows in the book. Moses is appealing to the Israelites to learn from their history and be
faithful to the Lord.
Chapters 4:44 -26:19
The second discourse ofMoses, in which he discusses laws by which Israel is to live. 4:44-49
provides the historical setting for the speeches ofMoses. In Chapter 5 Moses gives an exposition
of the Ten Commandments. In 6:1 -11:32 Moses exhorts the Israelites to fear and love God, and
to show this in a life offaithful, humble obedience. The section 12:1 -26:19, as Young (An
Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 96) explains, consists of laws, part of which are repetitions
ofthe Sinaitic legislation and part ofwhich have regard to circumstances not considered by that
legislation. Their purpose is to regulate the entire life oflsrael, when the nation crosses the
Jordan and settles in the Land ofCanaan.
Chapters 27:1 -28:68
The third discourse ofMoses. He describes a ceremony which is to take place across the Jordan
at Mounts Ebal and Gerizim, involving pronouncements ofcurses for disobedience to the
covenant, and blessings for obedience.
Chapters 29: 1 -30:20
The fourth discourse ofMoses. He urges the people to pledge themselves anew to the covenant,
setting before them the conditions for blessing and judgment from the Lord.
Chapter 31:1-29
The inauguration ofJoshua to succeed Moses as leader oflsrael, description ofwriting activity
by Moses, and final directions from Moses to the priests, Levites, and elders.
Chapters 31 :30 -32:47
The song ofMoses, in which he contrasts the faithfulness ofGod with the faithlessness of Israel,
and impresses on the people their responsibility to the covenant.
Chapters 32:48 -33:29
God's final command to Moses (32:48-52), and the last words of Moses (33:1-29). God directs
Moses to leave the Israelites and climb Mt. Nebo, where he will see the Land ofCanaan, and
then die. Moses, before leaving, blesses the tribes ofIsrael (no mention is made of Simeon), and
3.2 reminds them that God is their everlasting, almighty Refuge.
Chapter 34:1-12
The death ofMoses, events following his death, and evaluation ofhis prophetic ministry.
Selected Comments:
In these discourses, as Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 251) explains, Moses
is impressing upon the Israelites their special privileges and obligations as the covenant people of
Yahweh. Looking ahead to the conquest ofCanaan, and envisioning Israel as a theocracy, he
sets forth the covenant as the nation's God-given constitution. Moses lays the responsibility for
the preservation ofthis theocracy upon the conscience ofeach individual citizen and worshipper.
In Deuteronomy Moses is not only reviewing much ofwhat was already contained in the
previous three books (although this review was important, because Moses was dealing with a
new generation). Moses is also providing an exposition ofthe most essential contents ofthe
covenant, and developing to a certain extent laws previously given. Moses speaks in hortatory
form; that is, his addresses served to give the people strong encouragement, urging them on to
faithfulness to God and His covenant.
Certain emphases are characteristic ofDeuteronomy. Among these are the following, as outlined
by Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, pp. 252-253).
1.
The book sets forth that God is a spirit (4:12, 15-16), and also God's uniqueness and oneness (4:35,39; 6:4; 7:9; 10:17). 2. God's relationship to His people under the covenant is one of love rather than of legalism (4:37; 7:8, 13; 33:3). The grace ofGod is also emphasized (7:7; 9:4-6). 3. The believer is to fear and love God, both ofwhich are motivations for godly living (6:5; 10:12,20; 11:1, 13,22; 13:3; 19:9; 28:15-68; 30:6, 16,20). 4. Israel's greatest danger is idolatry, which is to be resisted and suppressed with uncompromising severity (6:14, 15; 7:4; 8:19, 20; 11:16-20; 13:1-18; 30:17-18). 5. Because oftheir close relation to the holy God, the Israelites must live as a holy people (7:6; 26:19; 28:9). This holiness involves abstinence from unclean foods, and is safeguarded by restricting sacrificial worship to a chosen central sanctuary; it finds expression in love toward the neighbor, and in giving help to the poor and underprivileged (widows, orphans, and foreigners). 6. Faithfulness to the covenant will be blessed with material benefits; disregard and disobedience ofthe covenant will be punished with material disaster, loss, and ultimate exile (Chapters 28-30). 3.3 7.
A characteristic admonition is: "Remember, and do not forget!" Israel is to retain and obey the revealed truth which it has received from God. Basically, Deuteronomy has a positive, optimistic futuristic outlook. Two frequently occurring phrases in the book are "go in and possess" (35 times), and "the land which the Lordyour God gives you" (34 times). In Deuteronomy 13:1-5 and 18:9-22 God gives instructions as to how the Israelites are to discern between true and false prophets. 18:14-19 foretells the prophetic institution, or the line of prophets, which culminates with Jesus Christ, who was and is the Prophet, Priest, and King. 2.
Authorship of the Pentateuch The position ofthis course, as already indicated, is that Moses is the author ofthe Pentateuch. However, there is another position in Old Testament scholarship which denies Mosaic authorship and attributes the Pentateuch to a number ofwriters, all ofwhom lived long after the lifetime of Moses. This second position is very prevalent and is encountered frequently in commentaries, journal articles, theological dictionaries and wordbooks, newspaper articles, educational programs on television, courses in secular universities, and courses in seminaries of various denominations. The debate over authorship of the Pentateuch also was part ofthe doctrinal controversy taking place in our synod in the late 1960's and first half of the 1970's. In covering the subject ofauthorship ofthe Pentateuch, the discussion will proceed as follows: A.
the reasons for the position of this course; B.
the historical development ofthe other position, which is also known as the Documentary Hypothesis (and popularly referred to as JEDP); c.
a summary ofthe reasons for the development ofthe Documentary Hypothesis; D.
a response to the Documentary Hypothesis in the form ofgeneral comments; E.
a response to the Documentary Hypothesis in the form ofspecific comments. A.
The Reasons for the Position that Moses Authored the Pentateuch Read Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 41-45 (conclusion ofsection b.). There are passages in the Apocrypha, and the writings ofPhilo ofAlexandria, Josephus, and the rabbis, which indicate Mosaic authorship ofthe Pentateuch. Noteworthy are the assertions ofJews quoted in the New Testament (the following passages are taken from notes ofDr. Douglas Judisch). a.
Sadducees: Matthew 22:24 (Mark 12:19; Luke 20:28) b.
Pharisees: Matthew 19:7 (Mark 10:4), John 8:5; 9:28-29 c.
Jews perhaps ofthe Synagogue ofthe Freedmen: Acts 6:11, 14 3.4 d.
Judaizers: Acts 15:1,5 Read Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 45 (section c.). With regard to passages from the Gospels, note also John 1: 17,45. With regard to passages from the remainder ofthe New Testament, note also Hebrews 10:28. Higher Critical scholars attempt to circumvent the testimony of Christ concerning the authorship ofthe Pentateuch with the following explanations. 1.
The Gospel writers misrepresented Christ. These authors, it is claimed, were not actually eyewitnesses ofthe public ministry ofChrist, and they are not providing us with the actual words ofChrist. Rather, the authors are making up Christ's teachings and the stories about Him. Since they considered Moses to be the author ofthe Pentateuch, they had Christ refer to Moses as the author. Response: Those holding to this explanation have a wrong conception ofthe Gospel writers, who were inspired by God. 2. Christ was limited in His knowledge, or He simply was ignorant on this matter. For example, Raymond Brown (Responses to 101 Questions on the Bible [Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1990], pp. 104-105) writes: It is worth emphasizing that to deny the full humanity ofJesus is just as serious as to deny the full divinity, and one may argue that it is truly human to be limited and time-conditioned in our knowledge. Thus we may have in Jesus the strange combination ofabsolute surety about what God wants of us if God's kingdom is to come, and a limited human way of phrasing the message. A variation on this theme is that Christ, when indicating authorship ofthe Pentateuch, was speaking in His state ofhumiliation. Response: This explanation says basically that Christ spoke error. Are His other teachings in error? God never errs; is Christ not God? Further, we have the testimony ofChrist spoken when He was in His state ofexaltation (Luke 24:44). 3.
Christ was speaking as a child o/His time -that is, accommodating Himselfto the thinking of His contemporaries, who were in error. Response: Christ never accommodated Himselfto the errors ofHis contemporaries; many times He courageously pointed out their wrong thinking. Further, what does this explanation say about Christ? Was He not concerned about always speaking the truth? This explanation does away with Christ's argument in Mark 7:10; 12:26 (Luke 20:37); Luke 24:44; John 5:45-47 (passages taken from notes ofDr. Judisch). The main reason for the position that Moses is the author ofthe Pentateuch is the abundant, clear, consistent testimony ofScripture. That is why the subject ofauthorship ofthe first five books is an important one, for when one denies Mosaic authorship, what is that person saying about Scripture? 3.5 There is secondary evidence from the five books which harmonizes with the position that Moses is the author. JUdging from this internal evidence, one is led to the conclusion that the author must have been originally a resident of Egypt, a contemporary eyewitness of the exodus and wilderness wandering, and possessed ofa very high degree ofeducation, learning, and literary skill (= Moses). The following points are a summary and abbreviation of Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, pp. 110-118. a.
Eyewitness details in the account ofthe exodus suggest an actual participant in the events. For example, Exodus 15:27 gives the exact number of fountains (twelve) and of palm trees (seventy) at Elim. Numbers 11:7-8 describes the appearance and taste ofthe manna with which God fed Israel. b.
The author ofGenesis and Exodus, as one would expect of a participant in the Exodus, shows a thorough acquaintance with Egypt. He is familiar with Egyptian language (there is a large number ofEgyptian loanwords and idioms in the Hebrew text), names, titles, and the polite language used in interviews with Pharaoh. Following the Egyptian custom ofthe 18th Dynasty, the author refers to the king ofEgypt simply as "Pharaoh" ("Great House"), without mentioning his name in proximity to that particular title. c.
Both Egypt and Sinai are very familiar to the author from the standpoint ofgeography ­more so than Palestine. The narrative ofthe exodus route is filled with authentic local references; on the other hand, the geography ofPalestine is comparatively unknown except by patriarchal tradition (in the Genesis narratives). See Genesis 13:10. Cf. Numbers 13:22. d.
There is a remarkable unity of arrangement which underlies the entire Pentateuch and links it together into a progressive whole, even though successive stages in revelation (Moses wrote over a period ofdecades) result in a certain amount of overlapping and restatement. Those who uphold Mosaic authorship at the same time admit that there are a few examples of additions to, and updating, the Pentateuch which took place after the lifetime of Moses (see Dillard and Longman, pp. 39-40). Yet these "post"-and "a-Mosaic a" are very limited in extent (cf. Dillard and Longman, p. 47). Also, sources perhaps used by Moses are not to be identified along the lines ofthe Documentary Hypothesis (cf. Dillard and Longman, p. 47). B.
The Historical Development of the Documentary Hypothesis Dillard and Longman basically are correct in their analysis ofthe present state ofthe Documentary Hypothesis (p. 47). Nevertheless this approach to authorship ofthe Pentateuch is still widely taught and encountered in various publications. Therefore it is important to have an acquaintance with this hypothesis. For an understanding of the historical development ofthe Documentary Hypothesis, read Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 107-154. Note especially the discussion concerning Witter, Astruc, Eichhorn, Vater, De Wette, Hupfeld, Hengstenberg, Keil, Graf, Kuenen, 3.6 Wellhausen, Green. c.
A Summary of the Reasons for the Development of, and A Brief Description of, the Documentary Hypothesis Again, this hypothesis says that there were a number of author~ behind the Pentateuch, all of whom lived long after the lifetime ofMoses. Some of the main reasons for the development and maintaining ofthis hypothesis are the following. 1.
The hypothesis as it has come down to us and is taught today is a product of the Historical­Critical Method, which holds to the closed continuum theory for world history, and to the evolutionary development ofreligion. Since there was no divine revelation and inspiration, there could be no prophecies which had a future fulfillment. For example, the words of Genesis 15:18 could not have been spoken to Abraham, nor could they have been written by Moses, but they must have been written by an author living during or after the time ofthe empire ofDavid and Solomon (which equaled the territory described in v. 18). 2.
The use ofdifferent titles or names for God, specifically, "Yahweh" (often translated as "Lord"/ "LORD'') and "Elohim" ("God"), indicates different authors behind the Pentateuch. 3.
Other alternate names, for example "Sinai" and "Horeb," "Canaanites" and "Amorites" (as a general term for the inhabitants ofCanaan) indicate different authors behind the Pentateuch. 4.
Variations in writing style and vocabulary indicate different authors behind the Pentateuch. 5.
Repetition, and supposed doublets (or parallel accounts) indicate different authors behind the Pentateuch. Doublets are understood to be two different accounts (varying to a greater or lesser extent) ofthe same incident or event. Examples ofsupposed doublets are the following. a.
Genesis 1:1 -2:4a, and 2:4b-25: two accounts of creation, by two different authors. b.
Genesis 20:1-18 and 26:6-11: two accounts ofthe same incident (a patriarch passing off his wife as his sister to Abimelech, king ofGerar). c.
Genesis 37:25 and 28: two accounts ofJoseph's being taken to Egypt (the Ishmaelites, or the Midianites, took him). d.
Genesis 16:4-14 and 21:9-21: two accounts of the same incident (Hagar leaving the camp of Abraham). 6.
Supposed differences in theology indicate different authors (see the discussion ofDillard and Longman, p. 41, #4). A standard or representative presentation ofthe traditional Documentary Hypothesis would affirm that the Pentateuch is made up offour sources or documents (JEDP). 1.
The J document was written by the Yahwist (in German this is spelled with a J as the first letter). It was composed sometime in the period ca. 960-850 B.C., in the south, in Judah (because ofits expansionist attitude [Genesis 15:18; 27:40]), and the preeminence ofJudah 3.7 [Genesis 49:8-12]). The Yahwist consistently uses the name "Yahweh" for God. He also uses the names "Sinai" and "Canaanite." This document is an epic history from creation to the Israelites about to enter Canaan. It shows an interest in personal biography, and is characterized by anthropomorphisms (seen in terms and theophanies). 2.
The E document was written by the Elohist. It was composed sometime in the period ca. 850-750 B.C. (perhaps closer to 750), in the Northern Kingdom (because ofthe prominence it gives to Joseph [father of Ephraim and Manasseh], Bethel, and Shechem). The Elohist consistently uses the name "Elohim" for God, to the exclusion of"Yahweh," prior to Exodus 3. He also uses the names "Horeb" and !lAmorite." This document has less continuous narrative than does J, and it tends to dwell on the origins of names and customs ofparticular importance to Israelite culture. In Genesis, the Elohist represents God as communicating through dreams and visions (rather than through direct anthropomorphic contact, as does the Yahwist). 3.
Sometime after the fall of the Northern Kingdom (722 B.C.), perhaps about 650 B.C., an unknown redactor combined J and E into a single document: JE. 4.
The D document was written by the Deuteronomist. Basically, this document is the book Deuteronomy, with scattered passages in previous books of the Pentateuch. D had its beginnings ca. 700 B.C., but it was completed in 622/1 B.C. That precise date is proposed because D is held to be the book found in the temple in the reign ofJosiah during his eighteenth year (2 Kings 22:3-13). This identification is made because of similar interests seen in Deuteronomy and Josiah's reform. a. Centralization ofworship and the cult (Deuteronomy 12; 2 Kings 23). D was composed to give impetus, and guidance, to the reform movement sponsored by Josiah. D in essence ordered all Josiah's subjects to abandon their local sanctuaries on the high places and bring their sacrifices and religious contributions to the temple in Jerusalem. b. Purification ofthe cult (Deuteronomy 16, etc.; 2 Kings 23). Another characteristic ofD is its interpretation ofhistory in terms ofpunishment or blessing from God on the basis of faithfulness or unfaithfulness to the covenant. The Deuteronomist's usual designation ofGod is "Yahweh your God." 5.
According to some, JE was combined with D by an unknown redactor ca. 550 B.C. (on this matter there are variations in the formulation ofthe Documentary Hypothesis). 6.
The P document was written by a Levitical priest or priests. It was composed sometime in the period ca. 550-450 B.C. It is so late because of the complexity ofthe legal and ritual material contained in this source (evolutionary development ofreligion). The Priestly document has relatively little narrative material, and to a large extent is a collection of legal, ritual, and genealogical material dating from various periods in the history ofIsrael. It has a major interest in the priesthood, and with the duties ofpriests. P also shows an interest in origins and genealogical lists. The usual designations ofGod in P are "Elohim" ("God") and 3.8 "God Almighty." For some who hold to the Documentary Hypothesis, P is not a separate document, but rather an editing of JED. 7.
JED was combined with P (or JE was combined with D and P) by an unknown redactor(s), who was/were the P writer(s) or a later editor(s), ca. 450-400 B.C. 8.
There were further modifications in the Pentateuch, until it reached its final form ca. 200 B.C. If each of the four documents was represented by a different color, on some of the pages of the Pentateuch all four colors would be present, on some pages three ofthe four colors, on others two of the four, and still on others only one color (e.g., in most ofDeuteronomy). The same verse could be divided into two colors. D.
A Response to the Documentary Hypothesis in the Form of General Comments To a large extent, the comments in this and the following section are a summary and abbreviation ofportions in Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction) and Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament) dealing with Pentateuchal authorship. 1.
Archer (p. 90) points out the contradictions and reversals which characterize the development ofthe Documentary Hypothesis. a.
Different divine names indicate different authors (Astruc, Eichhorn), each with his own circle ofinterest, style, and vocabulary. b.
There is the same divine name (Elohim) but different authors (Hupfeld), the earlier Elohist 1 (who came to be known as the Priestly writer) and the later Elohist 2 (who more closely resembles the Yahwist). Some passages from Elohist 2 do not greatly differ from those ofthe Yahwist in circle of interest, style, or vocabulary. c.
Elohist 1 (P), who most differs from the Yahwist in interest and style, must be the earliest ("Yahweh" being a later name for God than "Elohim"). d.
No, on the contrary this Priestly writer must be the latest instead ofthe earliest (for this fits in better with evolutionary theory about the development ofHebrew religion from primitive polytheism to priest-ridden monotheism). e.
The Yahwist ofcourse is later than the Elohist (all the critics up to Graf); no, the Yahwist is really earlier than the Elohist (Kuenen and Wellhausen). Kuenen gave JEDP as the order of the documents. Wellhausen gave the Documentary Hypothesis its popular expression (Young's "development hypothesis" [po 138] equals "Documentary Hypothesis" as used in this course). 2.
The Documentary Hypothesis completely rejects the testimony ofScripture (that Scripture is 3.9 inspired, and that Moses is the author of the Pentateuch). It does not examine Scripture on Scripture's own terms. The hypothesis rules out the supernatural, including supernatural revelation. It does not accept the reality of miracles, and prophecies accurately foretelling the future. 3.
The hypothesis allegedly is based on the evidence ofthe text itself, yet the evidence of the text is consistently evaded whenever it goes counter to the hypothesis. For example, the documentarians insisted that the historical books ofthe Old Testament show no recognition ofthe existence ofP legislation or a written Mosaic code until after the exile. When numerous references to the Mosaic law and the P legislation were then discovered in the historical books, the documentarians replied that all those references were later insertions made by priestly scribes who reworked those books after the exile. Archer (p. 106) comments: This means that the same body of evidence which is relied upon to prove the theory is rejected when it conflicts with the theory. Or to put it in another way, whenever the theory is opposed by the very data it is supposed to explain, the troubleshooting team of Redactor and Interpolator, Inc. is called to the rescue. Elusive tactics like these hardly beget justifiable confidence in the soundness of the result. 4.
The hypothesis says that Israel's religion was merely ofhuman origin as was any other (see response #2 above); it is to be explained as a product ofevolution in thought (evolving from polytheism to monotheism). Why, then, should Israel's religion be considered the one true religion of the Old Testament era? As Young asks (p. 140), "why did Israel alone develop such sublime doctrines? There were deep thinkers elsewhere, and philosophers of ability also, but no other nation produced conceptions of God such as those which are contained in the Old Testament." 5.
The documentarians often judge books of the Old Testament from a twentieth-century A.D., western standpoint. However, these books were written in the ancient Near East. Extra­biblical parallels show that the ancient Near Eastern writer did not always present his material in the same manner as is typical for a twentieth-century western writer. As Young states (p. 153), "The fact that the Pentateuch is, considered from the human side, a product of the Orient [Near East], may to some extent account for its form. One thing at least is clear. The elaborate 'scissors-and-paste' method which the documentary analysis postulates is without parallel anywhere in the ancient Oriental world." Further, the documentarians presume that scholars living in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries A.D. can more reliably reconstruct the way things happened than could the ancient writers themselves (no matter when they are dated), who were not as perceptive (or who were not telling the truth). 6.
The ironic fact is that while the Documentary Hypothesis is widely taught and assumed today in Old Testament studies, there is actually much disagreement among critical scholars themselves concerning this hypothesis. a. The documentarians are not always consistent in their dividing up ofthe Pentateuch, that 3.10 · is, in how they apportion passages to the various authors (and in how many sources they see behind the Pentateuch). b.
There is debate among critical scholars as to where J and E end. Some have spoken of the JE story as spanning eight books (an Octateuch); others, as spanning six books (a Hexateuch); still others hold to the classical viewpoint (a Pentateuch); while some have proposed that J and E end near the conclusion ofthe Book ofNumbers (a Tetrateuch). As Lloyd R. Bailey (The Pentateuch [Nashville: Abingdon, 1981], p.52) explains, ifone cannot be confident about where the sources end, "then certainly the list oftheir possible characteristics will be restricted and the overall purpose will remain clouded." c.
Later criticisms, such as tradition criticism (see Dillard and Longman, pp. 43-44) and rhetorical criticism, present challenges to the Documentary Hypothesis (which is connected with literary criticism). E. A Response to the Documentary Hypothesis in the Form of Specific Comments 1.
The Alternation Between "Yahweh" and "Elohim." a.
It is incredible to think that an author could have used only one name or title for God. In anyone sermon we can have four or five different names for Jesus. Moses could have had this alternation at times simply for the sake ofvariety, to avoid needless repetition. b.
There are many examples in the religious literature ofIsrael's pagan neighbors where an important god is referred to by more than one name or title (but which are not taken as evidence for multiple authorship). At Ugarit, Baal was also called Hadad, Aliyan, Rider on the Clouds, the Prince, and the Lord ofthe Earth. El had the epithets Bull, Father of Years, the Kind, the Compassionate, Creator ofAll, Holy One. Kothar-wa-Hasis was also known as Hayyin. c.
In the Koran (the sacred book ofIslam), for which no one questions the unity of authorship, there is alternation between the names Allahu and Rabbu for the same god. In some passages the two names are intermingled. In some chapters, however, only one of the names appears. d.
In the Old Testament it can often be determined that Yahweh or Elohim was chosen because ofthe theological context. Elohim was used to refer to God as the almighty Creator of the universe and Ruler over nature and mankind in general. This was the generic name of the Deity, containing the element el, which was the common Semitic word for god. Yahweh was the personal, covenant name ofthe Deity, often used in contexts describing a special relationship between Yahweh and a person or persons. [[Excursus: Those holding to the Documentary Hypothesis focus on Exodus 6:2-3 and explain that, according to the author ofthis passage (the Elohist), the name "Yahweh" was first revealed to Moses. The Y ahwist, however, did not know about this tradition and assumed that It Yahweh" was known by people before the time ofMoses (see, e.g., the J passages Genesis 4:1; 18:14; 3.11 22:14; 28:13; 29:35; and 30:24). Thus, the documentarians conclude that this is evidence for two different authors. The following is a response to this conclusion. a.
Cf. Exodus 14:4 -it is absurd to think that the Egyptians by now did not know that the God of the Hebrews was named "Yahweh" ("the LORD"). b.
One must have a proper understanding ofthe Hebrew verb "to know" and the concept of "name." Throughout Scripture "name" can have the sense ofthat which reveals character (or being) and work (so here in Exodus 6:2-3). "To know" in this passage (and, e.g, in Exodus 14:4) does not mean simply to know the name "Yahweh" as a vocable. Those before Moses had such knowledge of this name. Rather, Exodus 6 indicates that Yahweh would now reveal Himselfby mighty deeds (the plagues, the miracle at the sea) He had not performed in the days ofthe patriarchs. He would show Himself as the covenant­redeemer God in a new, dramatic way. The Israelites would know Him as the covenant­keeping God, as "Yahweh," in a manner that the patriarchs never knew Him.]] 2.
The Alternation ofOther Names. Again, it is incredible to think that a writer was incapable ofusing alternate names (besides those related to God). Think ofour everyday experience, how we speaklhave spoken. "New York City," "The Big Apple" "Chicago," liThe Windy City" "United States," "America" (in common language) "Russia," "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics," "Soviet Union" (previously) "England," "Great Britain" (in common language) "Federal Republic of Germany," "West Germany" (previously) "Cape Canaveral", "Cape Kennedy" "Rocky Mountains," "Great Divide" In Cambridge, MA there is a street which had the name "Boylston St." Later, the name was changed to "Kennedy St." From that time on the street was referred to in conversations either by its original name or its new name. See Deuteronomy 3:9; 4:48. 3.
The Variations in Style and Vocabulary. To maintain that a writer was incapable ofhaving variations in his style or of using more than one type ofvocabulary is not true to life. Moses would have had variations in style and vocabulary because ofthe different types of literature he was recording (narrative, legal, poetic, genealogical) and because ofdifferences in subject matter. Sometimes he used different styles for the sake of emphasis or vividness. Further, Moses was writing over a period ofyears (styles and vocabularies can change). Also, as already mentioned, the critical scholars have been forced to posit interpolations to explain a P word in a J passage, a J word in an E passage, etc. 4.
The Repetitions in the Pentateuch. a.
Other ancient Semitic literature shows many instances of repetition and duplication by the same author in a literary piece. b.
At times Moses used repetition for the sake ofemphasis, and as a teaching technique. This use ofrepetition continued to be used as late as the Qumran literature. 3.12 c.
Moses was writing over a number ofyears. d.
Moses had to repeat some material for a new generation ofIsraelites. e.
Sometimes the repetition noted by the documentarians is a matter of the prose version of an event being followed by the poetic version (thUS, not genuine repetition or duplication). 5.
The Doublets in the Pentateuch. There are no real doublets (as the critical scholars define that term) in the Pentateuch. a.
Genesis 1: 1 -2:4a and 2:4b-25 are not two different creation accounts by two different authors. Rather, both chapters taken together exhibit a technique widely practiced in ancient Semitic literature. This technique was to give first a relatively short statement or account ofa whole event or series ofevents, and then to give a more detailed account ofa special aspect ofthat event or series. For Moses, Adam and Eve were the climax ofthe visible creation. Having provided the background ofthe creation week, and placed the first humans in a general historical setting (Genesis 1: 1 -2:4a), Moses proceeds to devote a more extensive treatment to them (Genesis 2:4b-25), going into more detail concerning their being made by God, and their first home (Eden). b.
The event recorded in Genesis 20 (Abraham, Sarah, and Abimelech), supposedly from E, and in Genesis 26 (Isaac, Rebekah, and Abimelech), supposedly from J, both happened. Isaac could have repeated the mistake ofhis father; the inhabitants of Gerar probably did not change in their conduct; and the same name ("Abimelech") could have been passed from one ruler to the next (less likely: it is the same Abimelech in Genesis 26, but by then a very old man). c.
Hagar's twice leaving the camp ofAbraham -Genesis 16:4-14 (before Ishmael was born; claimed as from 1) and 21:9-21 (after Ishmael was a lad; claimed as from E) is not difficult to understand and accept, considering the tensions that existed between Sarah and Hagar over the years. d.
There is no evidence in the Joseph story (Genesis 37: 25,28) for different authors. The Midianites were accounted a sub-tribe ofthe Ishmaelites; see Judges 8:24. 6.
The Supposed Differences in Theology. This argument already in part has been refuted. Suffice it to say that these "differences" or "contradictions" can be harmonized with sufficient exegetical study. An example cited by the documentarians (see Dillard and Longman, p. 41), concerning a number ofaltars (Exodus 20:24-26) "versus" centralization ofworship (Deuteronomy 12: 1-26), is no such contradiction. The Exodus passage simply refers to those altars which would be built on extraordinary occasions, at the command ofGod; see, e.g., Joshua 8:30 (cf. Deuteronomy 27:5) and Judges 6:25-26. Those holding to the Documentary Hypothesis often see "problems" in the text where there really are no problems. 3.13 Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 4
1. Joshua 2. Judges 3. 1 Samuel 4. 2 Samuel 5. 1 & 2 Kings Unit 4 -Old Testament Isagogics
Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: 1. The isagogical matters pertaining to Joshua, Judges, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings. Be able to: 1. Read these subjects with greater understanding and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1. Skim the contents of Joshua, Judges, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings. 2. Unit 4 material in this student guide. 3. Dillard and Longman, pp. 107-127, 135-167. 4. Handout, Map ofthe Ancient Near East ca. 1550-1050 5. Handout, Important Events in the Ancient Near East ca. 1550-1050 6. Handout, Time Chart ofthe Ancient Near East: From the Israelite Slavery to the Monarchy 7. Handout, The United Kingdom 8. Handout, Kings and Prophets ofthe Old Testament 9. Handout. The Sin ofJeroboam I (1 Kings 12) 10. Handout, Framework 11. Handout. A Chronology ofthe Kings ofJudah and Israel 12. Handout. Chronology ofthe Divided Monarchy 13. Handout, A Chronology ofthe Ancient Near East Writing Assignments None 4.1
1. Joshua Author: Joshua evidently wrote part of the book: 24:25-26. Perhaps other parts ofthe book should also be attributed to him. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that the entire book, in its final form, was the product ofan author other than Joshua. This unknown author, besides including material left by Joshua, added his own writing to produce the book as it has come down to us. This author was an eyewitness of the events recorded, because of evidence in Joshua 5: 1 (the most probable reading is with the first person "we"). Cf. 5 :6. This author continued to live, however, after the lifetime ofJoshua. Consider the following passages. a.
Joshua 15:13-19 reports Caleb taking possession ofhis inheritance. This actually took place after Joshua's death: Judges 1:12-15. b.
Joshua 19:47 reports the Danites taking Leshem. Again, this actually took place after Joshua's death: Judges 18:27-29. c.
Joshua 24:29-30 reports Joshua's death and burial. d. Joshua 24:31 speaks ofthe elders who outlived Joshua. The cumulative effect ofthese passages leads to the conclusion that the book was completed after Joshua's death. Time of Composition: This topic was covered in the discussion concerning authorship. Purpose: The book's purpose is to relate the history ofIsrael from the nation's crossing over the Jordan into Canaan until Joshua's final words to the people, his death, burial and the period immediately after his death. The book shows how God kept His promise to the patriarchs that their descendants would possess the Land of Canaan. In Joshua we also see that when the Israelites trusted in Yahweh and did not break their covenant relationship with Him by disobedience, they were triumphant. Contents: Chapters 1 -12 The conquest ofCanaan. a. Chapters 1 -9: The taking ofJericho; the initial failure, and eventual victory, at Ai; the alliance with the crafty Gibeonites (the central campaign, "cutting" the land in two). b.
Chapter 10: The conquest ofsouthern Canaan. c.
Chapter 11:1-15: The conquest ofnorthern Canaan. d.
Chapter 11:16 -12:24: The summary ofJoshua's campaigns. Chapters 13 -22 The dividing up ofthe land among the tribes of Israel. Chapters 23 -24 Mainly, Joshua's final words to Israel. Selected Comments: The conquest ofthe land east ofthe Jordan (the Transjordan), and its distribution to two and one­halfIsraelite tribes, has already been reported (Numbers 32, 34). The time for the start ofthe events in Joshua would be ca. 1406 B.C. (about 40 years after the 4.2 exodus). How long it took the Israelites to conquer Canaan is uncertain -about six years? Joshua 24:31 tells how Israel served Yahweh throughout the lifetime ofthe elders who outlived Joshua and who had experienced everything Yahweh had done for Israel-how long did this last? A rough approximation for the close ofthe period covered by the book would be ca. 1390/85 B.C. It is interesting to note that the people ofJericho already were fearful ofthe Israelites because they had heard about Israel's conquering the territory east ofthe Jordan. Their fear must have increased when they saw the daily encircling oftheir city by the Israelite soldiers. It is important to have the nature ofthe conquest in proper perspective (critical scholars claim that the account in Joshua conflicts with the story presented in Judges). Under the leadership of Joshua Israel broke the main resistance ofthe enemy, so that the nation could settle in the land. Pockets ofCanaanites remained, however. The tribes ofIsrael, as each went to its portion ofthe land, were to complete the conquest by "taking care of' these Canaanite pockets; each tribe was to carry out a "mop-up" operation in its territory. Did the Israelites carry out the conquest to completion according to God's will? The Book ofJudges supplies the answer to this question, and also indicates that the Canaanites showed resiliency (e.g., Judges 1 :8, 21). The accounts in Joshua and Judges are not conflicting. Notice that there are two covenant renewal ceremonies in Joshua (Joshua 8 and 24). Israel encountered in Canaan a sophisticated, cosmopolitan culture characterized by skilled craftsmen, well-built cities, and extensive trade with foreign countries (including Egypt, northern Mesopotamia, and Cyprus). The Canaanites are to be credited with the invention ofthe linear alphabet (from Phoenicia it passed on to Greece, whence it became the ancestor ofour own alphabet). From a secular standpoint the Canaanites were more advanced than the Hebrews, who had been slaves, and had just spent forty years in the wilderness. Nonnally less developed cultures are absorbed by those more advanced. Israel was not absorbed by Canaan, but many of the Israelites were influenced by the remaining Canaanites with regard to religious beliefand practice. Throughout Canaan were several city-states (powerful cities, each with its own territory). These cities often bickered with one another. They could, however, unite and fonn coalitions against a common enemy. The religion ofCanaan generally was a debasing fonn ofpaganism which included child sacrifice and fertility cult aspects. Concerning the latter, sanctuaries had holy ones ("sacred" male and female prostitutes) with whom worshipers would have sexual relations as part oftheir religious life (to stimulate, or remind the gods, to grant fertility to crops, animals, and humans). Deities ofthe Canaanite pantheon were the gods El (the head ofthe pantheon), Baal (the stonn god, who sent the rains so necessary for life), KOthar-wa-Hasis (the craftsman ofthe gods), Yam (the god ofthe sea and chaotic forces in nature), and Mot (the god ofdeath and the underworld), and the goddesses Asherah, Anat, and Ashtoreth. 4.3 There was a danger, then, that the Israelites would be influenced unduly, and to their detriment, by Canaanite culture. Specifically, Canaanite religion would be a great enticement to the Israelites. They would feel the pull to join in the false worship and wicked practices because this was the religion ofthe "advanced" Canaanites, because this would ensure their having good crops and abundant herds, and because of the sexual elements ofthis religion. Note the two alternatives (both ofwhich must be rejected) to viewing the conquest as a mass invasion, as explained by Dillard and Longman (pp. 111-112). Other alternatives have been proposed by scholars, also greatly differing from the biblical account. Why did God command the Israelites to destroy completely the Canaanites (e.g., Deuteronomy 20: 16-18)? The Book ofJoshua reports that in certain instances, such as the capture ofJericho and Ai, the Israelites totally exterminated the inhabitants, in obedience to God's directive. This is a challenging question to answer from the standpoint of theology, and the following considerations are a partial answer. 1.
Some have said that the God of the Old Testament is a primitive, barbaric, cruel, bloodthirsty God, as opposed to the loving, gracious, merciful God of the New Testament. That viewpoint is rubbish. The Old and New Testaments have exactly the same God. God is changeless. There is Law and Gospel in both testaments. There is no development of theology (from a "lower" to a "higher" level) from the first to the second testament. 2.
God is always completely holy and righteous. There was no injustice or wrong on God's part in giving this command. 3.
Read Genesis 15:16 (Amorites is a general term for all the native inhabitants of Canaan). The implication is that the Canaanites (or Amorites) were extremely wicked; that God, however, was longsuffering and patient; that nevertheless there would be a time in the future (predetermined by God) when their wickedness would have reached the limit, and God's full judgment would fall on them. That point in time coincided with the Israelites crossing the Jordan under the leadership ofJoshua. Several times God, in proclaiming His statutes and forbidding wicked practices, said that it was on account ofthe terrible sins of the Canaanites that He was driving them out before Israel (e.g., Leviticus 18:24-30). 4.
There had to be a removing and cleansing, as when dealing with a deadly, contagious virus. The virus in Canaan was the native population, with its idolatry and associated pagan lifestyle. This removing and cleansing was necessary before Israel could safely settle down in the land and continue to be a monotheistic nation, faithful to the covenant of Yahweh. Groups of Canaanites did remain in the land, and they had a strong corrupting influence on many ofthe Israelites, getting them to join in their religion and not be faithful to Yahweh. What would the situation have been if many more of the Canaanites had survived? 5.
Thus, God knew what was necessary at that time and place for the welfare ofHis covenant nation, which He wanted to dwell in Canaan (part ofthe Promised Land). God's care for Israel was ofutmost importance because His plan ofsalvation was connected with the nation. In addition, we see again that the same act or event can be used by God in two different 4.4 ways: here, to bring judgment on the wicked, and to deliver His people. God is righteous and loving; He is a God ofjustice, and a God ofgrace. 6.
The Canaanites had repressed their consciences, and their natural knowledge of God (cf. Romans 1: 18-32). Further, centuries prior to the time ofJoshua there had been people in Canaan who believed and proclaimed the truth: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Melchizedek. Melchizedek (Genesis 14:18-20) was a native in the land and king of the city Salem (also known as Jerusalem). Perhaps Melchizedek had successors on the throne of Salem who for several generations also worshiped the true God. It is also possible that some trace of the truth was still left in Canaan just before the conquest but was altogether rejected by the inhabitants. Such remnants ofthe truth may be the reason for the one exception to the situation ofmass unbelief in the land: Rahab ofJericho (cf. Hebrews 11 :31 and James 2:25). Notice the extent ofher knowledge in Joshua 2:8-13; throughout she refers to the God of Israel by His covenant name Yahweh. She was brought to faith in part as a result of hearing about the exodus and conquests ofIsrael east ofthe Jordan. Yet this hearing had to be coupled with her knowing or hearing the Gospel truth: her knowing vestiges of the truth which may still have remained in Canaan, and/or her hearing the truth as it came across the Jordan shortly before the conquest ofthe land. Concerning Rahab, the Canaanites, and the truth, Walter C. Kaiser, Jr. (Toward Old Testament Ethics [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983], p. 268) makes this pertinent observation: Every forecast or prophecy ofdoom, like any prophetic word about the future except those few promises connected with the Noachic, Abrahamic, Davidic, and new covenants (which were unconditional and dependant solely on God's work of fulfillment), had a suppressed 'unless' attached to them. At what moment that nation turns from its evil way and repents then at that time the Lord would relent and cease to bring the threatened harm (Jeremiah 18:7-10). Thus Canaan had, as it were, a final forty-year countdown as they heard of the events in Egypt, at the crossing of the Reed Sea, and what happened to the kings who opposed Israel along the way. We know they were aware ofsuch events, for Rahab confessed that these same events had terrorized her city ofJericho and that she, as a result, had placed her faith in the God ofthe Hebrews (Joshua 2: 10-14). Thus God waited for the'cup ofiniquity' to fill up -and fill up it did without any signs ofchange in spite ofthe marvelous signs given so that the nations, along with Pharaoh and the Egyptians, "might know that He was the Lord". 7.
One might still ask, though: "What about the infants and children? Why were they to be exterminated?" In responding to this question we take into consideration that what happened to the Canaanites was not unique. Think of the loss oflife caused by the flood in the time of Noah, and the destruction ofSodom and Gomorrah. C[ other passages in Scripture; e.g., 1 Samuel 15:3. When a plague or famine hits a region, all suffer (whether righteous or unrighteous), including the little children. Moreover, the terrible thing about this sin-ruined world is that a particular sin can have consequences which affect both the guilty and the innocent (like a whirlpool sucking down everything close by to the bottom). 4.5 As indicated above, God had given the Canaanites ample time to repent. Perhaps He saw that instruction would be useless in the case ofthese wicked people, including their children. Arndt @ible Difficulties and Seeming Contradictions, p. 218) comments: It may have been an act of great mercy that the little children were cut off before they reached the years ofdiscretion, when they would have willfully and deliberately joined their elders in abominable practices ...all should grant that according to the Scriptures it is better for one to die in infancy without having been received into the number ofGod's people than to grow up to adulthood and to die an unbeliever who has spent one's life defying the will of the Almighty [the Bible indicates there are degrees of suffering in hell]. 8.
Ultimately this discussion of the extermination ofthe Canaanites comes down to the question, "Why are some saved, and not others?" There is, of course, no answer to that question this side of the grave. 9.
The situation is different for God's people in the New Testament era, who live throughout the world, and come from many nations. Now God wants us simply to use the "sword of the Spirit" (Ephesians 6:17) -the Word which the Israelites had (the Torah), plus all the succeeding books of Scripture -to resist temptations and to take the offensive, proclaiming God's Word to unbelievers. Following are a few concluding observations concerning the Book ofJoshua. 1.
The book shows that God is the almighty Controller ofhistory. He is to be given credit for all ofIsrael's victories (Chapters 10 and 11). 2.
God's giving the land to Israel shows that He is faithful and trustworthy (keeping His promise to the patriarchs). This is emphasized in Joshua's farewell speeches (Chapters 22-24). 3.
God's letting Israel dwell in the land also shows that He is a God ofgrace (undeserved kindness, unmerited favor). 4.
Israel, however, was only a steward of the land, which actually continued to belong to Yahweh. Thus property could not be sold at will but was to remain with a family from generation to generation. This concept is behind the guidelines in Leviticus 25:23-28 (selling property at a time ofneed, in order to survive); see also the stories of Ruth and Naboth and his vineyard (1 Kings 21). Further, the dividing of the land by lot indicates it was at God's disposal, as does the demand for a tithe to be given to God (Deuteronomy 14:22-29; 26:9­15). 5.
An important concept, carried over especially from Deuteronomy, is that possession and retention ofthe land is tied to obedience to the covenant (Joshua 23:6-16; 24:19-20). This obedience is a product of saving faith. The book emphasizes the life of sanctification. a.
Joshua's being obedient is stressed (Joshua 1:6-8; 10:40; 11:23; 24:15). b.
There are the two covenant renewal ceremonies. 4.6 c.
The ark ofthe covenant is given prominence, especially in Chapters 3 and 6. d.
In Chapter 5 the Israelites carry out circumcision ofthe males and observe the Passover (after which the manna stopped) before starting the conquest ofCanaan. e.
The Israelites were to observe the herem, the irrevocable giving over ofthings or persons to Yahweh, often by totally destroying them. See, e.g., Joshua 6:17-19, 2l. Achan's disobedience, not observing the herem (or ban), defiled Israel, and had to be dealt with before the nation could proceed in the conquest of Canaan. God's response is couched in covenant language. 2.
Judges Author: The author is unknown. Some have attributed authorship to Samuel, but this is uncertain. Time of Composition: The author wrote early in the period of the monarchy. Judges 18:1, 19:1 and 21 :25 indicate: a.
that he wrote after the kingship had been established (and was explaining to his readers that during the time ofthe judges there was no king over the Israelites), and b.
that he wrote before the time ofthe divided kingdom ("no king in Israel" implies a united kingdom). Also, the author wrote before David captured Jerusalem and made it his capital (ca. 100312 B.C.): see Judges 1:21. So Judges was composed during the reign ofSaul (ca. 1052/50-1010 B.C.) or early in the reign ofDavid; that is, in the last half ofthe 11 th century B.C. Purpose: Judges carries on from the point where the Book ofJoshua ends. It gives an account of the history ofIsrael in the aftermath ofthe conquest ofCanaan, from the time of the death of Joshua up to but not including the rise ofSamuel as a prophet and judge ofthe Lord. Judges shows that the Israelites' welfare depended on their spiritual relationship with Yahweh. Contents: Chapters 1:1 -3:6 These chapters present events which took place shortly after the death of Joshua; provide the background for the period ofthe judges; and serve as a summary ofmuch of what follows in the book. Chapters 3:7 -16:31 This is the main section of the book, which presents the history of the judges (excluding Samuel) and the cyclical pattern ofevents (explained below) characteristic of this period. Chapters 17 -21 This section can be considered to be two historical appendices (17-18, and 19­21). It is not certain where the events in each fit chronologically in the history covered by the book. 4.7 Selected Comments: Study the handouts "Map ofthe Ancient Near East ca. 1550-1050," "Important Events in the Ancient Near East ca. 1550-1050" (concentrate on paragraphs 5-17), and "Time Chart ofthe Ancient Near East: From the Israelite Slavery to the Monarchy." With regard to paragraphs lO­B on the second handout, why does the Book of Judges make no mention ofthis Egyptian activity in Palestine? As a general response, one could say that the author ofJudges writes from a religious standpoint: he focuses on Israel's sin, and the consequent chastisements from God. Those military encounters with other nations, which served as God's means ofchastening or disciplining the Israelites, are mentioned, and those which did not, are omitted. Egypt, then, was not among the oppressors used by God. Egypt's military encounters in Palestine did not lead to servitude for Israel. There are two specific responses which can be given to the preceding question. First, as Archer (A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, p. 234) explains, it is possible that the Egyptians are not mentioned because the Israelites and Egyptians had little contact. The Egyptians were most active along the coastal plain ofthe Mediterranean, which the Israelites seldom held. Primarily the Israelites occupied the hills of Judah, Samaria, and Galilee. Second, archaeologist John Garstang has advanced the theory (as explained by Archer, pp. 234, 278) that the periods of "rest" mentioned in Judges were times ofEgyptian supremacy in Canaan, that is, when the Egyptians exercised effective control in the area, policing the main arteries ofcommerce. This naturally would inhibit aggressiveness on the part of the Canaanite nations and the nations surrounding Canaan, without necessarily affecting too drastically the life ofthe Israelites themselves, who largely kept to the central hills at this point in their history. The author of Judges avoided mentioning the Egyptians as such because of an inveterate antipathy to the nation which had enslaved his ancestors in Goshen. Periods ofoppression of the Israelites, then, came when Egyptian power in Canaan was weak and the peoples ofthe area became restless and aggressIve. Pharaoh Merneptah's campaign in Palestine in his fifth year mainly was close to the Mediterranean Sea; with contact principally being with Canaanite peoples. His stele in Thebes lists places and peoples in Canaan, and includes Israel. The stele says in general terms, "Israel is laid waste." This may be something of a boast, however, since Merneptah lists no Israelite cities as plundered, and for Israel uses the determinative ofpeople and not land. On this stele elsewhere Merneptah uses the determinative of land for those conquered. From this Wood (A Survey ofIsrael's History, p. 180) concludes that "it would appear that he [Merneptah] defeated Israelite people in battle, but did not gain control ofany significant portion oftheir land." Perhaps Israelite conscripts were serving in a Canaanite army(ies). The time period covered by the Book ofJudges would be ca. 1400-1080 B.C. Cf. Judges 11 :26. The period ofthe judges, from the first (allowing time for the Israelite elders to die off, and for spiritual problems to arise) to the last (Samuel, not included in the Book ofJudges), would be ca. 1380/75-1050 B.C. If all the terms ofservice ofthe judges or periods ofpeace (as indicated by the Book ofJudges), along with the stated periods ofoppression, were added up consecutively, the total would be about 410 years. That figure would be too high for the period ofthe judges (1375 minus 410 equals 965, about when Solomon began to build the temple in Jerusalem). The 4.8 conclusion is that many of the judges overlapped, that is, were contemporaries of each other. A number governed only portions ofIsrael. Judges 10:7 states that God gave the Israelites over to the Philistines and the Ammonites. This may indicate that Samson (who dealt with the Philistines in the west) and Jephthah (who dealt with the Ammonites in the east) were contemporaries. As discussed above, in the time after the conquest under Joshua the Israelite tribes were to take possession ofthe land (which had been apportioned to them) by driving out and exterminating the remaining Canaanites, and establishing the theocracy. However, after the death ofthe elders (Joshua 24:31; Judges 2:7) the zeal of many ofthe people for the Lord died down, and they lost trust in Him. They grew tired ofthe task ofgetting rid ofthe Canaanites which God had instructed them to do. Further, because oftheir lack oftrust in the Lord, and their entering into idolatry, God did not continue to give His people victories over the Canaanites. Again, Judges reports that the Israelites occupied the hill country, but for the most part did not take the level, or plain regions, the more valuable territory. The groups ofCanaanites remaining in the land were a snare to many of the Israelites in that they influenced them to have a similar wicked, idolatrous lifestyle. Thus, by way ofchastisement, God handed the Israelites, when many fell into apostasy, over to their enemies, who oppressed them. When the people in their affliction returned to the Lord in sincere repentance and cried out to Him for deliverance, God in His mercy and grace would raise up for them a deliverer, a judge, whom the Lord would use to deliver the people from oppression. But after a period ofsome faithfulness to the Lord many ofthe Israelites again would do what was evil in His sight. Thus in the main section ofthe book (3:7 -16:31) there is the general cyclical pattern of apostasy, oppression, repentance and crying out to the Lord for deliverance, God raising up a judge who delivers the people, and a period of relative obedience and peace, followed by apostasy, and so forth. Moreover, this cyclical pattern was also a spiral downwards: with the passing years the Israelites became more and more wicked (Judges 2:19). The corruption in Israel is emphasized by the two historical appendices at the end ofthe book (Chapters 17-21; note the conclusion, 21:25). The situation in a given locality could be one of anarchy. Judges therefore shows Israel's failure as a theocracy to remain faithful to the covenant, even though the people again and again were rescued by deliverers ofGod. The repeated failures of the Israelite tribes to maintain loyalty to Yahweh and the covenant led eventually to the institution ofa central monarchy (in 1 Samuel). The judges were leaders called by God to govern God's people and usually also to deliver them from oppression. Thejudges led and governed because ofparticular gifts given to them by God, qualities of leadership which the people recognized and respected. The time ofthe judges was one more oftribal self-consciousness, than of national unity. A man probably would have identified himself as an Ephraimite, for example, rather than as an Israelite. Nevertheless, there was unity among the tribes. There was an ethnic unity: all had a common ancestry, which they remembered. There also was a religious unity: they had common belief in 4.9 Yahweh (or were supposed to have this); the central sanctuary (the tabernacle), where sacrifices were offered daily; the annual pilgrimage festivals (Passover and Unleavened Bread, Pentecost, and Tabernacles); and the Day ofAtonement. During the period of the judges the tabernacle, in which the ark ofthe covenant was kept, was at Shiloh. Some classify the judges as minor (less written about them) and major (more written about them). See the list in the Concordia Self-Study Bible, p. 327, and note the different enemies of Israel encountered in the book. The Concordia Self-Study Bible has a very fine discussion ofthe literary features ofJudges on pp. 325-327. A famous crux (problem) in the book is understanding how Jephthah fulfilled his vow (Judges 11). There is a division on this point among good, conservative scholars. One group holds that he slew his daughter and offered her up on an altar. Another group holds that he fulfilled his vow in a different way: by dedicating her to full, perpetual service to the Lord, so that she would never marry. Following are reasons for the second viewpoint (the student must decide which understanding is preferable). Reasons 1-3 come from Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 279), 4-9 from the Judges portion ofthe Keil-Delitzsch Commentary on the Old Testament, and reason 10 from Solomon Landers ("Jephthah's Daughter," Bible Review [August, 1991], pp. 31,42). 1.
Human sacrifice always was understood, from the days ofAbraham (for whose son, Isaac, a ram was substituted by God) to be an offense and an abomination to Yahweh. The Torah expressly forbids this (Leviticus 18:21; 20:2-5; Deuteronomy 12:31; 18:10). It is inconceivable that Jephthah could have thought he would please God by committing such an abomination as sacrificing his daughter. In Judges 11 Jephthah shows himself to be a believer in Yahweh; he certainly was not depraved in a moral and religious sense. 2.
Jephthah's daughter was allowed two months ofmourning, not to cry over her approaching loss oflife, but over the fact that she would never marry. 3.
Verse 39 says literally "she did not know a man." That is, his daughter did not get married but remained a virgin. This is a pointless remark if she had been put to death. It makes sense ifshe was devoted to the service ofYahweh, perhaps in the tabernacle, for the rest ofher life. Cf. Ex. 38:8; 1 Samuel 2:22; Luke 2:36-37. The sadness ofthe situation was not in her being devoted to divine service, but that she would never marry, have a child, and so continue Jephthah's line. 4.
Was Jephthah saying with his vow that he would make the ultimate sacrifice to the Lord, and that it was the Lord's choice as to what or who the sacrifice would be, but if it were a human, then, ofcourse, the person would not be slain and burned up, but dedicated to God? Jephthah was not uttering his vow without any reflection; his previous acts do not show impetuosity or rashness. 5.
Jephthah vowed to offer up an 'olah, a whole burnt offering. Since his daughter was a virgin, she remained so for the rest ofher days ofservice to Yahweh. She was in this sense a spiritual whole burnt offering. Notice that God accepted Abraham's willingness to offer up 4.10 his son as a completed sacrifice (Genesis 22:2, 12, 16, 18; cf. the wording ofHebrews 11:17, 19). 6.
Physical whole burnt offerings could only be offered up on the altar at the tabernacle, by the priests (unless there was some extraordinary manifestation ofGod, which is not the case here). It is highly unlikely that any priest would have offered up Jephthah's daughter. 7.
It is contrary to human nature for a daughter who soon would be put to death to spend the two months before her sacrifice away from her father. 8.
The daughter spent the two months on the mountains or hills, that is, in a private setting (not in the presence ofmen), out ofmodesty, because she would be mourning her perpetual virginity. 9.
It is unlikely that this event would have been commemorated (Judges 11 :39-40) if an abomination had been committed. 10.
The law ofphysical whole burnt offering clearly required that the sacrificial animal be a male without blemish (Leviticus 1 :3, 10). As a female, Jephthah's daughter would have been unacceptable as a sacrifice. Judges gives us more insights into the personal life ofSamson than any other judge (even reporting how he was set apart by God before birth). Also, four times the text says that the Spirit of God came on him (13:25; 14:6, 19; 15:14). Yet Samson spent the night with a prostitute (16:1-3; apparently this was not an evangelism call). His life is one ofcontrasts: he slew a thousand Philistines with the jawbone ofa donkey, but he himself was overcome, so to speak, by a woman; he had special endowment ofthe Spirit, and is mentioned as a hero of faith in Hebrews 11 :32, but also gave vivid evidence ofspiritual weakness. As Samuel Schultz (The Old Testament Speaks, p. 112) comments, Samson probably could have accomplished much more, were he not ensnared by sin. Following are summarizing thoughts with regard to the theology ofJudges. •
The book presents many ofits characters as both sinner and saint. We learn from their lives what we are to do, and what we are to avoid. •
The book shows God as Savior and Deliverer, who is merciful, patient, and faithful. David Howard (An Introduction to the Old Testament Historical Books [Chicago: Moody, 1993], p. 102) writes that "as a corollary to Israel's apostasy, God emerges as the true 'hero' in the book. There is a certain irony in this, since the book focuses on a succession ofheroes who delivered Israel. It was God who raised up the various heroic judges to deliver Israel from its crises, and it was He who remained faithful to the covenant." •
Judges shows God as Judge. As Howard (An Introduction to the Old Testament Historical Books. p. 109) observes, no individual is called ajudge in the book; the term is used only of God (11 :27). This is an important part ofthe book's message: it is Yahweh who is the true 4.11 judge ofHis people, and He controls their history, both for blessing and for punishment. •
The book shows the folly of idolatry, which has terrible consequences. It warns against being influenced by, or compromising with, the unbelieving world. 3. 1 Samuel Author: 1 and 2 Samuel are one book in the Hebrew Bible. Samuel was not the author responsible for this history, although he probably left records which were used in writing portions of 1 Samuel. This history is named Samuel not because he is the author but because he is the principal character in the first part, and because he anointed the other two principal characters, Saul and David. However, Samuel's death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1 and 28:3, and many events are mentioned which took place long after his death. It is uncertain who wrote the history "Samuel." As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 178-179) explains, 1 Samuel 27:6 indicates that the book was not completed until the time of the divided monarchy ("kings ofJudah"). Further, the author undoubtedly made use ofpreviously written sources, as for example the Book ofJasher referred to in 2 Samuel 1:18. He likely consulted the records ofthe prophets Samuel, Nathan, and Gad mentioned in 1 Chronicles 29:29­30. The conclusion is that 1and 2 Samuel (in our English translations) were composed under divine inspiration by an author, perhaps ofJudah, who lived after the division of Israel into two kingdoms and who used earlier written material. Time of Composition: Discussed above. Purpose: The purpose of 1 and 2 Samuel is to give an account of the end ofthe period ofthe judges, the founding ofthe Israelite monarchy (and Samuel's part therein), and the reigns ofthe first two kings, Saul (who was unfaithful to the covenant and had a tragic end) and David (the faithful king, from whose dynasty the Messiah would come). Contents of 1 Samuel: Chapters 1 -7 The career ofSamuel as prophet and judge. Chapters 8 -15 Saul becoming king, his disobedience, and his rejection by God. Chapters 16 -31 The decline of Saul, the rise ofDavid, David's years as a fugitive, and the death of Saul. Selected Comments on 1 Samuel: Samuel was a transition figure. He was both the last judge (1 Samuel 7:6, 15-17) and a prophet (l Samuel 3:20; 2 Chronicles 35:18); from now on prophets and kings would be connected in the history ofIsraeL Thus Samuel was the connecting link between the period ofthe judges and the early monarchy. Hannah's song ofpraise to the Lord (2: 1-11) exhibits much theological knowledge and insight. Her song may be compared to the Magnificat ofMary (Luke 1:46-55). After the Philistines destroyed Shiloh (1 Samuel 4; Jeremiah 7:12), the tabernacle (apparently 4.12 moved before the Philistines arrived) came to be located in Nob (1 Samuel 21: 1-9). Nevertheless, the ark of the covenant (captured by the Philistines but returned to Israel about seven months later) came to be located in Kiriath Jearim for many years. Why this irregularity continued in the time of Samuel is uncertain. The following are reasons why the Israelites asked for a king (see 1 Samuel 8). 1.
Samuel was getting old, and his sons were corrupt. 2.
The people were afraid of going back to the chaotic times characteristic of their earlier history as related in the Book ofJudges. 3.
The Philistine threat continued. The Israelites feared these and other enemies. They wanted their king to be a military leader, who would fight their battles. 4.
The people wanted to be like other nations. This was in part the opposite of God's plan for Israel: that His people be different from the other nations. 5.
The Israelites did not learn from, and interpret correctly, their experience in the time of the judges. They concentrated on the negatives ofthat time, wrongly blamed those on the political organization (the theocracy), and failed to see their wickedness as the cause of all the troubles. In asking for a king the people were not so much rejecting Samuel, as they were God. There was nothing wrong with a kingship per se. In fact, there had been earlier indications of a coming monarchy: Genesis 49: 10; Numbers 24: 17; Deuteronomy 17: 14; and 1 Samuel 2: 1 O. However, the people were not envisioning a king guided by the King, Yahweh, and so, in essence, a continuation ofthe theocracy. They wanted simply an earthly king like their neighbors, and had no concern for how Yahweh would fit into this scheme. In essence, then, they were rejecting Yahweh as their King (and the covenant relationship). They were forgetting about how Yahweh had delivered them in the past. Critical scholars, not surprisingly, find doublets (or even triplets) in 1 Samuel as they did in the Pentateuch. The following are examples of alleged duplicate (or triplicate) accounts, as listed by Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 181-186). a.
Saul is appointed twice as king (9:1-10:16; 10:17-27). b.
Saul is twice deposed (13:14; 15:26-29). c.
David is introduced to Saul twice (16:14-23; 17:55-58). d.
David is three times offered Saul's daughter in marriage (18:17-19; 22-29a; 21b). e.
David twice spared Saul's life (24:3-7; 26:5-12). f.
David is said to have made a covenant with Jonathan three times (18:3; 20: 16,42; and 23: 18). g. David twice took refuge with Achish, King ofGath (21:10-15; 27:1-4). These so-called doublets (or triplets) can be dealt with in the same way as were the "doublets" of the Pentateuch (through careful study ofthe text). They are not different accounts ofthe same incident written by different authors. 4.13 As Bright (A History ofIsrael, pp. 190-191) explains, Saul's kingship can be described as rather primitive, by the standards of the ancient Near East. No bureaucracy was developed, and the tribal organization of Israel was left intact. Saul had no large harem (if he even had one), no officer except his relative Abner, and no splendid court. His base at Gibeah was a fortress rather than a fine palace. Saul's apparent practice of obtaining promising young soldiers for permanent service was, though, the beginning ofa standing army. He did this out ofmilitary necessity. During the reign ofSaul, and during the reigns of David (ca. 1010-97110) and Solomon (ca. 97110-93110) -during the time ofthe United Monarchy (or the United Kingdom) -Israel was undisturbed by the major Near Eastern powers to the south and north. Egypt did not interfere: after Ramses III no Egyptian king crossed the border ofPalestine until the time ofRehoboam, Solomon's son and successor, during whose reign the Divided Kingdom began. Assyria at the time of the United Kingdom was going through a period ofweakness, and would not threaten Israel until the 800's B.C. The incidents in 1 Samuel 13 and 15 are perhaps representative ofSaul's acts ofrebellion against the Lord, which led to the negative pronouncements from Samuel. Saul had forgotten that God was still the King ofHis people. David's life on the run from Saul further shaped his character. As Wood (A Survey ofIsrael's History, p. 211) explains, "he had to face a new kind oflife, requiring a psychological adjustment not easy to make. He had been the favorite in the land, the leader ofIsrael's victorious army, and applauded on every hand. Now he was a fugitive, legally an outlaw, hunted by the king. Such an adjustment is hard, but David had to make it ifhe was to keep a clear mind in his new role." He always had to be on guard and thinking ofhow he would remain out of Saul's grasp. Further, David must have wondered how his new life would affect the people's opinion ofhim. Because men joined David for various reasons, he soon had with him a tough group ofwarriors numbering about four-hundred men, and which would grow eventually to about six hundred (1 Samuel 23:13). The disastrous defeat at Mt. Gilboa marked a low point in the history ofIsrael. The nation now basically was at the mercy ofthe Philistines, who occupied much Israelite territory. It is interesting to note how the city ofJabesh Gilead figures into the beginning and ending of Saul's reign (1 Samuel 11 and 31:11-13). Saul is a dramatic example ofwhat can happen to a man ofpromise and potential who does not obey God. He had a marvelous opportunity, being assured ofGod's blessing if only he would obey the Lord. His reign was a tragic one for the Israelites, who had wanted a king so that their land might be strong against enemy attack. When Saul died, after being king for about forty years, the land was divided, war-tom, and in a weaker condition than when he began his reign. 4.14 4. 2 Samuel Author: Discussed above. Time of Composition: Discussed above. Purpose: Discussed above. Contents of2 Samuel: Chapter 1 David receiving news about, and lamenting over, the deaths ofSaul and Jonathan. Chapters 2 -5 David's establishment as king, first over Judah, then over all Israel; his making Jerusalem his capital; his crucial victories over the Philistines. Chapters 6 -7 David's establishing Jerusalem as the religious capital ofthe nation by moving into the city the ark ofthe covenant; God's covenant with David. Chapters 8-10 David's victories over Israel's enemies and the establishing ofthe empire. Chapters 11 -12 David's adultery with Bathsheba and his murder ofUriah; God's word to him through Nathan; David's repentance. Chapters 13 -19 Turmoil in David's house, culminating in the rebellion of Absalom; the quelling ofthat rebellion. Chapters 20 -24 Sheba's rebellion and its ending; various historical appendices; psalms of David;
his sin in numbering the people.
Selected Comments:
2 Samuel tells about the rise ofIsrael from the low point ofthe defeat at Mt. Gilboa to the
highpoint ofbeing the most powerful nation in the Near East. This rise took place under David,
who established what has been called the Davidic Empire. These are the "glory" years ofIsrael's
history, which continued into the reign ofDavid's son and successor Solomon.
Wood (A Survey ofIsrael's History, p. 217) summarizes well David's reign: "In contrast to the rule
ofSaul, David's reign was one ofunification and development ofthe kingdom. He brought the
tribes together, established an efficient government, organized the priesthood, and maintained an
army that scarcely lost a battle. He inherited a divided, war-tom land and, when he died, left an
empire. David was not only a strong king in contrast to his predecessor, he was the strongest king
Israel ever had." He was also an ardent worshiper ofYahweh. David was the faithful king, against
whom later kings ofIsrael were measured.
1 Chronicles 10-29 is a parallel history to 2 Samuel. Schultz (The Old Testament Speaks, p. 129) describes the contents of 1 Chronicles: By way ofintroduction to the establishment ofthe Davidic throne, the Chronicler traces 4.15 the genealogical background ofthe twelve tribes over whom David ruled [Chapters 1-9]. Saul is but briefly mentioned, after which David is introduced as king of all Israel. The organization ofIsrael politically as well as religiously is more elaborately given and the supremacy ofDavid over the surrounding nations receives a greater emphasis [than in 2 Samuel]. Before concluding with the death ofDavid, the last eight chapters in this book give an extensive description of his preparation for the building of the Temple. Consequently I Chronicles is a valuable complement to the record in II Samuel. After the assassination ofIshbosheth the northern tribes ofIsrael saw their need to have David as their king, also. Their reasons for taking David as king, and thus uniting all Israel under one ruler once again, are given in 2 Samuel 5. 1.
They recognized that David had been divinely appointed as king over Israel (v. 2). 2.
They had a common heritage with David (v. 1). 3.
They recognized that David had played an important role in Israel's military history (v. 2). David therefore was anointed as "king over Israel" (v. 3), that is, over the northern tribes. He had previously been anointed by Samuel (1 Samuel 16:12-13), and by his fellow tribesmen to be king over them (2 Samuel 2:4). God gave David crucial victories over the Philistines early in his reign over the united kingdom (2 Samuel 5: 17-25). These victories were important for the following reasons. 1.
Philistine domination over Israel ended. In the course oftime David goes on to subdue the Philistines, confining them to their territory, reducing their territory, and forcing them to recognize Israelite supremacy. 2.
David is established as king in the eyes of the Israelites. These victories inspired confidence in and loyalty to David. 3.
His defeat of the Philistines was a great encouragement to David. As king over all ofIsrael, David saw the need to move his capital from Hebron, which was in the territory of his own tribe. Otherwise, the other tribes would be jealous and constantly suspicious that David would be showing favoritism to Judah. Jerusalem was a superb solution to the problem ofwhere David should have his capital. The city was located between northern and southern Israel. It was on the border line ofJudah and Benjamin, thus adjacent to both David's tribe and that ofhis predecessor. In addition, Jerusalem was a neutral site: it was possessed by none ofthe tribes (the Jebusites still held the city), so any tribal jealousy would be ruled out. The city would be the personal possession ofDavid (the "City ofDavid", 2 Samuel 5:9). David's taking of the city (2 Samuel 5:6-8; 1 Chronicles 11 :4-6) was further indication ofhls military ability and that ofhis soldiers. David, as a sign ofprosperity, multiplied his wives (2 Samuel 5:13). A large harem was a sign of wealth and prestige among ancient Near Eastern kings. However, this was a violation of 4.16 Deuteronomy 17:17. As John Davis and John Whitcomb (A History ofIsrael, p. 288) note, "while polygamous practices are not condemned at this point, they are indirectly judged in the troubles that rise later in the royal court." David's bringing the ark ofthe covenant to Jerusalem was a brilliant move, by which he made the city not only the political, but also the religious, capital of Israel. He placed the ark in a tent which he had prepared in Jerusalem. The tabernacle during David's time was located at Gibeon (2 Chronicles 1 :3-5). The Bible gives little information regarding David's consolidation of the Israelite tribes into a centralized government, but this certainly did happen. In addition, the Philistines were driven out ofIsrael, as has been mentioned. Although the Bible only reports the capture ofJerusalem, David must have similarly gained control of other such Canaanite city-states as still existed in Palestine. Bright (A History ofIsrael, p. 201) explains: These were quite numerous along the coastal plain both north and south ofMount Carmel, in Esdraelon, and also in Galilee (cf. Judg. 1:27-35). Though some of them no doubt already had a partly Israelite population, none had ever been in Israelite control, at least not permanently. How these city-states fell to Israel we do not know. But they were certainly taken by David and, equally certainly, early in his reign, for he would scarcely have embarked on his foreign wars while unconquered territory remained in the homeland. The probability is that most ofthem had been vassals or allies ofthe Philistines and that, when Philistine power was broken, they transferred their allegiance to David with little or no resistance. This meant a great rounding out of Israel's territory. It was, indeed, the completion ofthe conquest ofCanaan [except for Phoenicia]. 2 Samuel 7: 11b-16 is an important link in the Messianic chain extending throughout the Old . Testament (to be joined to Genesis 3:15; 9:26; 12:3; 49:10). David had wanted to build God a house or temple, and Nathan, responding merely as a man, encouraged the king in his plan (2 Samuel 7:1-3). However, God told Nathan what he was to speak, as a prophet, to David (7:4-17). David was not to be the one to build the temple for Yahweh. This was not due to any fault of David, but because he had been God's instrument to defeat Israel's enemies. As such, David was a man ofwar and bloodshed, and God wanted His temple to be built by a man ofpeace, since the temple symbolized God's spiritual kingdom. A chief characteristic of this kingdom was and is peace. There is a nice turn on words in verse 11. David had it in his heart to build a house for God; instead, God will build, or establish, a house for David. That is, God will preserve David's dynasty, so that it wi11last forever. Offspring or seed in verse 12 refers to the line of David, his descendants (he, him and his in English translations are better rendered as it or its). God would establish this line so kingship forever would be associated with it; this line would always have a kingdom (vv. 12, 13). Thus, David's house or dynasty would continue without end; his throne would be established forever (v. 16). There are allusions to Solomon, whose name means man of peace, and who built God's temple (vv.l2, 13, 14), and to later descendants ofDavid who were kings (vv. 12, 14). See also 1 Kings 2:24; 5:3-5; 8:17-20; 1 Chronicles 22:6-11; 28:6-7; 2 Chronicles 6:7-10; Psalm 89:20-37; Psalm 132:11-12. After God made this covenant with him, David proceeded to gather quantities of material toward the day when his son would build the temple of God (1 Chronicles 22:1-5, 14-16). Yet David's throne, and kingship being associated 4.17 with his line, seemed to come to an end with the fall ofJerusalem to the Babylonians in 587/6 B.C. How, then, was the concept of/orever, so strongly emphasized in this prophecy, fulfilled? Fulfillment was possible in that the Messiah would be a son ofDavid, from his line. This prophecy, referring to descendants ofDavid, begins with Solomon and culminates in Jesus Christ. Because of God's covenant with David -that his throne would endure and kingship would always be associated with his line -the Israelites knew from this point on that the Messiah would be a descendant ofDavid. This was a further narrowing down ofthe Messianic promise. This interpretation of2 Samuel 7 is not against the hermeneutical principle "the intended sense is one." The one thing intended in the passage is the physical line ofDavid. Also, this is not a typological interpretation. For example, Solomon is not seen as a foreshadowing of Christ, or even ofkings following Solomon on the throne in Jerusalem. Rather, individuals in the one line ofDavid are alluded to, with none foreshadowing another. 2 Samuel 7 is the background for a number ofpassages which follow in Scripture. For example, see Isaiah 9:6-7; 11:1, 10; Jeremiah 23:5; Ezekiel 34:20-24; Luke 1:29-33; Romans 1:3; Hebrews 1:5. Cf. John 7:42. David during his reign carried on organizing activity important for the religious and worship life of Israel. Abiathar and Zadok were the high priests, contrary to the Torah (which allowed for only one). Later, Abiathar was expelled by Solomon (1 Kings 2:26-27). Ofcourse, David, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, contributed greatly to the worship life ofIsrael with his authorship of many psalms. Concerning David's army, it is possible to piece together information from the biblical record. In general, the army had three sections, as outlined by Wood (A Survey ofIsrael's History, pp. 224­225). 1.
The original faithful six hundred from David's fugitive days, a group to which probably some replacements and additions were made. 2.
Troops levied from the people, constituting a sort ofrevolving standing army. 3.
Foreign mercenaries, made up ofCherethites and Pelethites. They appear to have served as David's private body guard. They may not have gone to war frequently with the regular army but stayed with the king for his personal protection. It was probably from the six hundred that some, if not most, ofthe special mighty men came (2 Samuel 23:8-39; 1 Chronicles 11:10-47). Notice that Joab, David's general (and a murderer), is missing from the list of"mighty men." Concerning David's foreign conquests, Wood (A Survey ofIsrael's History, p. 225) comments: With the home country firmly consolidated and controlled, and with an effective army available, David was in a position to wage war on foreign soil as need arose. There is no suggestion that he intentionally sought conquest, however, or that he gave himself to creating an empire. For the most part, he simply entered battle situations as they arose and sought to win them. His victories did result in the country's borders continually enlarging. 4.18 Besides controlling the Philistines, David in the course of time came to rule over the Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, Ammonites, and the Aramean (=Syrian) states ofMaacah, Tob, Beth-Rehob, and Zobah. The King ofHamath sent gifts (tribute) to David, acknowledging Israelite supremacy, and he probably continued paying such tribute to Israel. With Hiram, King of Tyre, David had an important alliance, which was mutually advantageous, and which continued into the reign ofSolomon. See the handout "The United Kingdom." David's empire, including all the territory acknowledging Israelite supremacy under one arrangement or another, stretched from the Syro-Arabian Desert in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, excluding Phoenicia. In the north his influence reached as far as the Euphrates River; to the south, his domain ran to the Gulf of Aqabah, an arm of the Red Sea; the southwestern boundary was the River ofEgypt (Wadi el-' Arish). With the Davidic Empire God's promise to Abraham was fulfilled (Genesis 15:18). By ancient Near Eastern standards the Davidic Empire was quite respectable with regard to size. However, it was smaller than the earlier Egyptian Empire ofthe 18th Dynasty, which included basically this same territory plus Egypt and Nubia; and it was smaller than the later Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires. Concerning David's government, see 2 Samuel 8:15-18; 20:23-26; 1 Chronicles 27:16-34. David's court was larger than that ofSaul, smaller than that of Solomon. His court included his various wives, concubines, and children. The report ofDavid's sin and the aftermath (2 Samuel 11 and 12) points to Scripture as authored by the Holy Spirit, and not only man. In the ancient Near East, it was not customary to record disgraceful, embarrassing, or other negative incidents in a king's reign. The report also indicates that Israel's moral code was different from that ofthe surrounding nations (in many ofthese there was no problem with a king taking the wife ofa subject), and that the king, as any other Israelite, was bound to the covenant. 2 Samuel 11 and 12 give the background for Psalm 51 (and perhaps for Psalm 32). David was fully forgiven by the Lord (and delivered from God's condemning wrath), but God still chastened him for his sin (David experienced God's temporal wrath). 2 Samuel 13-18 shows the fulfillment of God's judgment on David that "the sword" would never depart from his house (12:10). The rebellion ofSheba (2 Samuel 20) was smaller than that of Absalom. It was an attempt to withdraw the northern tribes from the union with Judah under David, and demonstrated the underlying tension in this union. This tension was again considerable by the end ofSolomon's reign, and resulted in the Divided Kingdom in the reign ofRehoboam. As Horace Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, pp. 131-132) explains, 2 Samuel 21-24 are appendices, basically six in number. Where all the events related are to be placed in David's reign cannot be said with certainty. Possibly such a collection ofmiscellanies had taken shape independently before being added at the end of2 Samuel. The six sections appear to be arranged chiastically: 1 and 6, natural catastrophes; 2 and 5, exploits ofDavid's warnors; 3 and 4, poems. See also Dillard and Longman, pp. 138-139. 1. 21: 1-14 -a famine, attributed to Saul's breach ofJoshua's ancient covenant with the 4.19 Gibeonites in putting some of them to death. David's response. 2.
21:15-22 -conflicts with the Philistines in the process ofsubduing them, which included exploits ofDavid's warriors .. 3.
22 -a psalm ofthanksgiving by David, identical with Psalm 18. 4.
23: 1-7 -the "last words ofDavid." Similar to a psalm, apparently intended as a sort of testament. 5.
23:8-39 -more exploits ofDavid's warriors. Listing ofthe "mighty men." 6.
24 -the census taken by David, and resultant pestilence. 2 Samuel 24: 1 reports that God was angry with Israel, and incited David against the nation, so that David took a census. David was a tool to bring God's judgment on sinful Israel. This passage implies that David also was guilty ofsome sin. 1 Chronicles 21: 1 states that Satan "incited" (same verb as in 2 Samuel 24:1) David to take a census. This indicates directly that David, as was the nation, was guilty of some sin. What was this sin, which led to the census which was wrong in God's sight? Notice how even Joab (a murderer) is uncomfortable with David's plan (2 Samuel 24:3). David apparently had been building up an attitude ofpride and self-admiration for what he had achieved in the way of military and economic success. He began to think more in terms ofhis accomplishments rather than in terms ofGod's mercy and grace (which granted these successes). Further, he came to measure his power by the numbers of his people and the material resources that were available to him, and not by the arm ofthe Lord. The nation, too, was guilty of this same sinful pride (Israel was the leading power in the Near East) and reliance on earthly wealth and troops. Yahweh incited David in the sense ofletting David fall deeper into sin. This is sometimes how God deals with unrepentant sinners; cf. Romans 1:18-32. God gave David over to his evil pride, in essence saying to David, "All right, since this is in your heart, go ahead and take the census. See where it will get you!" Also, as Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 132) explains, evil through Satan, who is under God's sovereign control, ultimately must be attributed to God, even ifonly in a permissive sense. Whereas God allowed David to fall deeper into sin, Satan tempted David to sin, and succeeded in inciting him to carry through with his evil desire (which originated with his sinful pride) to take the census. So God and Satan were both involved in this incident (cf., e.g., the story ofJob, and Christ's betrayal and crucifixion), each with different purposes. God's purpose was that David, having gone through with the census, realize the terrible nature of his wicked action and pride, confess his sin, come to the Lord in sincere repentance, and in addition, be further refined spiritually through the necessary chastisement which followed. The nation too, would be brought to repentance, and would be refined, as a result of the plague. Satan's purpose was that David continue and grow in his sinful pride, eventually fall from faith, and finally be damned in hell. God's purpose prevailed. The text ofmost ofthe Old Testament books is in good shape in the Masoretic Text. This is not 4.20 the case for Samuel, which is in poorer shape than any other Old Testament book, with the possible exceptions ofEzekiel and Hosea. In other words, the text ofSamuel preserved in the MT (which the Masoretes faithfully and accurately transmitted) exhibits much textual corruption (although this must not be exaggerated). Why this is, is unknown. The translators ofthe Septuagint used a Hebrew text type which was in somewhat better condition than the text type preserved in the MT. Thus, the Septuagint is very useful for the textual criticism ofSamuel. Also helpful are parallels in Chronicles and the Samuel fragments from Qumran. 5. 1 and 2 Kings Author: In the Hebrew Bible 1 and 2 Kings are one book. It is uncertain who the author ofthis history was. We can say that he made use ofpreviously written records. Three documents are named: a. the book ofthe annals ofSolomon (1 Kings 11 :41); b. the book ofthe annals ofthe kings ofJudah (e.g., 1 Kings 14:29; 15:7,23); and c. the book ofthe annals ofthe kings ofIsrael (e.g., 1 Kings 14:19; 15:31). Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 188-189) comments: "Evidently these works were public annals ofthe kingdom which had probably been written down by the prophets. As an example, appeal may be made to the history ofUzziah's reign which Isaiah made (2 Ch. 26:22). These sources, therefore, may be regarded as part ofa prophetic history issued in the form of annals. Under divine inspiration the author ofKings made his choice from these written documents," and perhaps from other sources. It is interesting to note the similarity between Isaiah 36-39 and 2 Kings 18-20, and between Jeremiah 52 and 2 Kings 24:18-25:30. The end ofKings, 2 Kings 25:27-30, was written after 560 B.C. and before the fall ofBabylon in 539 B.C. It is possible, though, that the rest ofKings was written before 560. With the above points in mind, it is conceivable (but not certain) that the author ofKings (except for 2 Kings 25:27-30) was Jeremiah, following Jewish tradition. The author writes from a prophetic standpoint and has great literary ability. A consideration in favor ofthis proposal, as Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 289) explains, is that there is no mention whatever ofJeremiah himself in the chapters dealing with King Josiah and his successors in Jerusalem -the time when Jeremiah carried out his prophetic ministry. Itis difficult to explain the failure to mention such an important prophet in the history ofIsrael, unless this was due to the author's modesty -that author being Jeremiah himself. As for 2 Kings 25:27-30 (and Jeremiah 52:31-34), this passage seems to have been written by an inspired author living in Babylon, rather than in Egypt, where Jeremiah died, and written perhaps after the death ofJeremiah. 1 Kings 8:8 -"and they are still there today" (the temple and the ark were destroyed when the Babylonians took Jerusalem in 587/6 B.C.) -may be due to the fact that Jeremiah (or whoever the author ofKings was) did not have a chance to update his earlier work. Ifthis explanation is applied to 1 Samuel 27:6 (see above, 1 Samuel, "Author"), it is not out ofthe question that 4.21 Jeremiah (or whoever wrote Kings) also was the author ofSamuel. Time of Composition: Discussed above. Purpose: To present a history ofthe Israelite kings, from the very end ofDavid's reign to the last king ofthe Southern Kingdom and the fall ofJerusalem to the Babylonians; and to give some information about what took place after the fall of Jerusalem. The time period covered is from ca. 971 B.C. to 560+ B.C., or over four hundred years (Samuel covered the time period ca. 1100?­975? B.C.). Another purpose ofKings was to show on the basis ofIsrael's history that the welfare ofthe nation
ultimately depended upon its faithfulness to the Lord. The success of any ruler was to be measured
by the degree ofhis following the covenant and his upholding the worship ofYahweh.
Therefore, the author had a religious approach when writing this history. As Harrison
(Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 722) writes, this was the "divine view ofIsraelite history."
The author was not so much interested in secular achievements as he was in showing how each
successive ruler related to Yahweh and the covenant. For this reason, Kings presents an uneven
picture as far as pure history is concerned. Ornrl, one of the most important kings of the Northern
Kingdom, is given six verses in regard to his achievements. The rule ofJeroboam II ofthe
Northern Kingdom, which was a "mini" golden age from a secular standpoint, is given seven
verses. Hezekiah, a godly king who carried on a religious reformation, is given three whole
chapters.
Since Kings is written from this religious, theological standpoint, all the kings ofthe Northern
Kingdom are condemned (given a negative evaluation), because they all continued in the sin of
Jeroboam I (the son ofNeb at), the fIrst king ofthe Northern Kingdom, who led the people ofhis
Kingdom into sin with his wrong religious innovations. With regard to the Southern Kingdom, the
author puts particular emphasis on those kings who were faithful to Yahweh and the covenant.
Contents:
1 Kings 1 -11 The end ofDavid's reign, and the reign of Solomon.
1 Kings 12 -2 Kings 17 The Divided Monarchy (or Kingdom), and the end of the Northern Kingdom. 2 Kings 18 -25 The remaining history of the Southern Kingdom until its end, and certain events which took place after the fall ofJerusalem. Selected Comments:
2 Chronicles is a parallel history to 1 and 2 Kings.
The golden age ofIsrael, which began in the reign ofDavid, continued into the reign ofSolomon,
who for a short time was co-ruler with David, and then was sole ruler over Israel after David's
4.22 death. Contrasts between David and Solomon. and their reigns are as follows. 1.
David had lived in the open, and had been a fugitive. Solomon knew only the ease ofthe palace. 2.
David had been a warrior, leading his army to victory. Solomon was a king ofpeace, and (as far as we can tell) did not experience battle. 3.
Solomon's court was more lavish than David's, more in the manner ofother ancient Near Eastern courts. Also, Solomon engaged more in foreign trade. 4.
David was faithful to the Lord. Solomon fell into sinful ways and worship. At the beginning ofhis reign Solomon took care ofany potential trouble-makers (1 Kings 2: 13­46). With regard to his foreign and military policy, Scripture gives no evidence ofSolomon conducting any military campaign. David had built the empire. The task before Solomon was not to expand the kingdom further -it had reached its limits under David -but to maintain the empire in peace and security. He did this by strengthening his military establishment and arranging a series of treaties. 1.
Key cities at strategic locations were fortified and made into military bases. From these cities Solomon's troops could be quickly dispatched to put down any internal uprising, or revolt by a vassal state, or to meet an invasion by an enemy army. 2.
Solomon also made full use ofchariots in the Israelite army. He divided up this chariot corp among the key fortified cities. 3.
Solomon had alliances with cities and lands neighboring Israel (including Tyre). Some of these were sealed by marriage. His most significant marriage in this regard was to the daughter ofthe Pharaoh ofEgypt. From what is known ofthe history ofthe ancient Near East, this is the only example ofa daughter ofa Pharaoh being given in marriage to a foreign royal house. This indicates: a.
that Egypt, under the leadership ofthe 21st Dynasty, was very weak; and b. the military and political superiority ofthe Solomonic Empire over Egypt. For most ofSolomon's reign the empire did remain intact. Solomon carried on commercial activity, which brought much wealth to the king and to Israel. 1.
He conducted trade via the Red Sea. 2.
He conducted overland merchant activity, controlling important caravan routes. This may have been part ofthe reason why the Queen ofSheba visited him. 3.
1Kings 10:28-29 is diffi~ult from a text-critical standpoint, but apparently Solomon conducted trade in horses and chariots (acting as middleman). 4.23 During the first half of Solomon's reign, the golden age was at its height. The empire was secure militarily, and at peace. Israel and the king were enjoying prosperity. Solomon at this time was faithful to Yahweh, and tremendously wise. There was literary production: much ofProverbs; the Song of Solomon; perhaps Job. Ecclesiastes may have been written toward the end ofSolomon's reign. There was building activity: e.g., the temple in Jerusalem, and Solomon's palace. With Solomon's reign there was a full-blown Near Eastern monarchy (quite a development from Saul's relatively primitive kingship). However, in the second halfofSolomon's reign problems arose. 1.
In order to support his lavish lifestyle, and bureaucracy, and building projects, Solomon had to lay a heavy tax on his subjects (apparently costs outran income). Because of this tax the resentment of the northern tribes ofIsrael in particular grew (there had been in the past some tension in their union with Judah under the house ofDavid). 2.
Solomon reorganized Israel into twelve administrative districts, each district having to provide the court with provisions for one month. With this reorganization some of the tribal boundaries were disregarded, causing additional resentment among the Israelites. 3.
Solomon used forced labor for his projects, even compelling some ofhis fellow Israelites to carry on such work. This caused further resentment. 4.
The major problem was Solomon'S being unfaithfulto the Lord (1 Kings 11 :1-13). In I Kings 11 there is an indirect condemnation ofpolygamy (a violation ofGod's ideal of monogamy, as set forth in Genesis 2; and with regard to Solomon as king, disobedience to Deuteronomy 17:17), as elsewhere in Scripture, where cases ofpolygamy have ensuing problems. Thus God, by way ofjudgment, raised up adversaries to frustrate and humiliate Solomon: Hadad, Rezon (who took Damascus from the empire), and Jeroboam. By the time ofthe death ofSolomon, there was much tension in Israel. The northern tribes had grown disillusioned with the house ofDavid, and were on the verge ofbreaking away. God showed mercy to Solomon in that he was allowed to live out his days as the ruler of a united kingdom. Also, God showed mercy to the house of David in that it did not lose the secular kingship entirely but was allowed to rule over a portion ofthe kingdom. 2 Kings 12:4 indicates that ifRehoboam had responded to the complaints ofthe northern tribes with wisdom and diplomacy, and actually lightened their burden, the division ofthe kingdom could have been avoided. But he gave the opposite kind ofresponse; the split occurred; and this division was permanent. The Southern Kingdom is also known as Judah; it consisted ofthe tribe ofJudah and a good portion of Benjamin, The Northern Kingdom is also known as "Israel" (so context indicates how that name is to be understood), Samaria (after that city became the capital of the North), Ephraim (one ofthe leading tribes ofthe North), and by other names. As a result ofthe split the empire quickly was lost: the Aramean territories to the north broke free (Damascus already was gone); Ammon and Moab broke free; the hold over the Philistines was weakened. Judah does seem to have retained some control over Edom. Also, 1 Kings 14:25-28 4.24 reports the invasion ofPharaoh Shishak (who had overthrown the 21st Dynasty) from Egypt. According to his inscription at Karnak, he hit both the Southern and the Northern Kingdom with great force, carrying offmuch plunder. Read the handouts "KingS and Prophets ofthe Old Testament" (not every prophet is listed), "The Sin ofJeroboam I (1 Kgs. 12)," "Framework" (taken from Hummel's The Word Becoming Flesh), "A Chronology of the Kings ofJudah and Israel," "Chronology ofthe Divided Monarchy," and itA Chronology ofthe Ancient Near East." Note that, with regard to the good kings ofJudah, some in Kings receive more approval, some less (some were better than others). The good kings were: Asa Jehoshaphat very good Joash Amaziah Uzziah (Azariah) Jotham Hezekiah *outstanding Josiah *outstanding Note that, in the history ofthe Divided Monarchy, there were times of friction, even ofconflict, between the two kingdoms, and times ofpeace, even ofcooperation. Rehoboam conflict with Northern Kingdom Asa Jehoshaphat II peace/cooperation Athaliah Joash mutual toleration ==> ==> friction, conflict Ahaz (fall ofSamaria) Omri established the capital ofthe Northern Kingdom at Samaria, and was an important king from the political standpoint. His son Ahab, married to the Phoenician princess Jezebel, succeeded him as king. The situation in the Northern Kingdom already was bad enough (due to the religious innovations ofJeroboam I), but now Jezebel and Ahab attempted to make Baal-worship the dominant religion oftheir kingdom. They attempted to persecute those who did not worship Baal. God intervened, raising up first Elijah, then Elisha. This is another great period ofmiracles in Old Testament history (the first being in the time ofthe exodus, wilderness wandering, and conquest). By God's grace the prophets were able to prevent Baal-worship from becoming the dominant 4.25 religion. Elijah is an excellent example ofwhat a prophet ofthe Lord was. He has been called a second Moses. Both men were zealous for the law and honor ofGod; both performed miracles; both had a meeting with God on Mt. SinaiIHoreb. Both talked with Christ during His transfiguration. Athaliah (2 Kings 11), the daughter ofAhab and Jezebel, usurped th~ throne ofthe Southern Kingdom when her son Ahaziah, who was king at the time, was killed in the North during the rebellion ofJehu. She reigned over the Southern Kingdom for about six years, and represents the only intrusion into the otherwise uninterrupted Davidic dynasty. Her grandson Joash, who succeeded her, started well,but took a turn for the worse in the latter part ofhis reign (2 Chronicles 24:17-27). During the reign ofJeroboam II the Northern Kingdom reached fairly great material power and prosperity. He was able to take advantage ofboth Aramean/Syrian and Assyrian weakness and regain much ofthe territory to the north that David had once controlled. His contemporary Uzziah, ruler ofthe Southern Kingdom, regained territory in the southeast. Judah at this time also was outwardly prosperous. The territory ofthe two kingdoms together was considerable, but would not equal the empire ofDavid and Solomon. This time can be considered a lesser (mini) golden age in the history ofIsrael. However, there was much wickedness in the Northern Kingdom. God raised up the prophets Amos and Hosea to warn the people ofthe North ofimpending doom ifthey persisted in their lack ofrepentance. The large majority did not repent, continued to lead sinful lives, and most were not true believers in Yahweh. This time ofmaterial prosperity and power was relatively brief. When Assyria became strong again under Tiglath-pileser III, the end ofthe Northern Kingdom rapidly approached. Beginning with 2 Kings 15:8, the author ofKings quickly goes through the history ofthe Northern Kingdom after the reign ofJeroboam II -the last 31 years ofthe Northern Kingdom's existence. These were chaotic years; ofthe six kings after Jeroboam II, four were assassinated. Assyria was exerting more and more pressure, threatening the Southern Kingdom as well. The result was that Assyria made the Northern Kingdom, after reducing its territory, a vassal state; the Southern Kingdom under Ahaz agreed to be a vassal state. Finally, after rebellion on the part ofthe Northern Kingdom, the Assyrians under Shalmaneser Vended that kingdom by taking Samaria in 722 B.C. (after a three-year siege). 2 Kings 17 describes the exile ofmany ofthe Israelites, and the subsequent rise ofthe Samaritans. The author ofKings makes a strong theological point in reporting the end ofthe Northern Kingdom (2 Kings 17:7-23). The Northern Kingdom existed for just over two-hundred years, from ca. 931-722 B.C. It had ten ruling families. Eight kings were either assassinated or committed suicide. With regard to the reign ofHezekiah (2 Kings 18-20, 2 Chronicles 29-32), note four events during his rule (and the role ofIsaiah). 1. He carried on a religious reform. 4.26 2.
He rebelled against Assyria, which was the background for the miraculous deliverance of Jerusalem. 3.
He was fatally ill, but God extended his life fifteen years. 4.
He made a major mistake with envoys from Babylon. Manasseh, son ofHezekiah, started out as a wicked king, and had a terrible influence on Judah. 2 Chronicles 33: 10-20 indicates that he had a change for the better later in his reign. However, because ofhis earlier evil influence, Judah had fallen back into wrong religious practice, and was in need of another religious reformation by the time ofJosiah. Note two aspects ofthe reign ofJosiah (2 Kings 22:1-23:30,2 Chronicles 34-35). 1.
He carried on a religious reform, heightened by the finding of the Book ofthe Law. 2.
He seems to have wanted to extend the territory over which he had influence; cf. 2 Chronicles 34:6-7. He could do this because Assyria was weakening, and its empire shrinking rapidly, after 627 B.C. Wood (A Survey ofIsrael's History, p. 311) describes Josiah's reign: The three decades ofJosiah's reign were among the happiest in Judah's experience. They were characterized by peace, prosperity, and reform. No outside enemies made war on the nation, the people could concentrate on constructive activity; and Josiah himselfsought to please God by reinstituting adherence to regulations commanded in the Mosaic Law. In 612 B.C. Nineveh, the capital ofAssyria, fell to a coalition ofBabylonians, Medes, and probably also Scythians. Pharaoh Necho ofEgypt marched north in 609 B.C. with a large army, to aid a remnant group ofAssyrians which had escaped the destruction ofNineveh. He wanted to set the Assyrians up as a buffer between the Babylonians, who had taken over the eastern half ofthe Fertile Crescent (from Nineveh south through Babylonia), and himself and the Egyptians, who were planning to take over the western half ofthe Fertile Crescent. Josiah, going out with his army to stop the northward march ofthe Egyptians at Megiddo, was slain. Necho's plan with regard to the remnant group ofAssyrians failed, and the Assyrians disappear from history. Consequently, Necho fell back to Carchemish, making that city on the Euphrates River an Egyptian fortress. During the years 609-605 B.C. there was a standoff between the Babylonians and the Egyptians, the former ruling the eastern half of the Fertile Crescent up to the Euphrates, the latter the western half. Judah was a vassal state of Necho during this period. The four last Israelite kings, who reigned in Jerusalem after the death ofJosiah, were all wicked rulers. Under their influence the land once again was involved in wrong religious practice. The majority ofthe people persisted in their wickedness, despite the valiant ministry ofJeremiah, which lasted from ca. 627-587+ B.C. In 605 B.C. the Babylonians, under Prince Nebuchadnezzar, crossed the Euphrates and hit the 4.27 Egyptians at Carchemish with a surprise attack. The Egyptians were routed, and sent fleeing all the way back to Egypt. As a result, the Babylonians took over the western half ofthe Fertile Crescent, including the Southern Kingdom (2 Kings 24:7). In that year 605 the first group of exiles was taken from Jerusalem and Judah to Babylonia. Daniel and his three friends were among these exiles. King Jehoiakim rebelled against the Babylonians. As the Babylonians were approaching to stop the rebellion, Jehoiakim died, and his son Jehoiachin was placed on the throne. After a reign of only three months, he wisely surrendered to the Babylonians, who took him and other people from Judah as exiles to Babylonia in 597 B.C. Probably included in this second group of exiles was Ezekiel. The Babylonians appointed Zedekiah as ruler in Jerusalem. However, another revolt took place under Zedekiah which led to the end ofthe Southern Kingdom. In 587/6 B.C. the Babylonians took Jerusalem and destroyed the city. At this time a third wave ofexiles was led offto Babylonia. After the assassination ofGedaliah, who was appointed as governor by the Babylonians, many of the people who were left in the land fled to Egypt (forcing Jeremiah to go with them). The Southern Kingdom existed for almost three and one-half centuries, about 136 years longer than the Northern Kingdom. Judah apparently was not repopulated with foreign peoples by the Babylonians, as the Assyrians had done to the Northern Kingdom. (Jeremiah 52:30 indicates that a fourth wave ofexiles was taken to Babylonia in 58211 B.C.) Kings ends (2 Kings 25:27-30) on a positive note. The report concerning Jehoiachin in Babylon indicated that David's royal line, although having been brought low, would never be utterly rejected by the Lord. The Messianic promise connected with the house of David had not been abandoned by God, despite the necessary judgments His people had to experience. For a discussion ofthe term "Deuteronomistic History," see Dillard-Longman, pp. 96, 122, 154­155. The following quotation from the Anchor Bible Dictionary (Steven McKenzie, "Deuteronomistic History," Vol. 2, 1992, pp. 160-161) serves as a supplementary reference. Keep in mind that McKenzie is a member ofthe historical-critical school. "Deuteronomistic History" is "the name commonly used to designate the book ofDeuteronomy as well as the section ofthe Hebrew Bible know as the Former Prophets, i.e., Joshua, Judges, 1-2 Samuel, and 1-2 Kings. The name reflects the scholarly theory that these books comprise a single literary unit alongside the other two great historical works in the Hebrew Bible -The Tetrateuch (Genesis through Numbers) and the Chronicles complex (1-2 Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah). According to this theory, a later editor shifted the notice ofMoses , death from its original position at the end of Numbers to its present location at the end ofDeuteronomy (chapter 34) in order to group the first five books ofthe Hebrew Bible into the Torah or Pentateuch ... The Deuteronomistic History (DH) is also referred to as the Deuteronomic History by some scholars. However, the term 'Deuteronomistic' in reference to this corpus is preferable since it better translates Martin Noth's adjective deuteronomistische ... and thus distinguishes between matters pertaining to the entire History (Deuteronomistic) and those concerning only the book of 4.28 Deuteronomy (Deuteronomic) ... Previous [prior to Noth's work] treatments of the Former Prophets can be described in two broad categories ... One approach continued to apply to these books the same kind of source criticism used in analyzing the Pentateuch ... This was particularly true for Joshua. Another perspective tended to view the books ofJoshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings as independent units that had passed through one or more Deuteronomistic redactions ... Noth, in contrast, argued that the material in Deuteronomy and the Former Prophets was a unified history ofIsrael written by a single, exilic author/compiler ... Noth pointed to the similar language and ideology exhibited throughout the DH as evidence ofan individual hand. According to Noth, this individual ... composed the first history ofIsrael on the basis oftraditions which he had collected. [He] ... selected those traditions that were appropriate for his purposes and unified them by means of a common structure and chronology. He divided the history ofIsrael into four major periods: the time ofMoses, the settlement ofCanaan under Joshua, the period of the judges, and the era ofthe monarchy. [His] ...use ofthe traditions before him was basically conservative. However, he did make changes where necessary in order to introduce his own theological view of Israel's history. He also formulated speeches for the main characters and inserted them at key junctures in his account in accordance with his periodic division ofIsrael's history ... [He] introduced his history with the old Deuteronomic law code (4:44-30:20 minus additions) for which he constructed a new framework (Deuteronomy 1-3 plus original parts ofchap. 4 and 31: 1-13 plus original parts ofchap. 34). Hence, all ofthe book ofDeuteronomy took on the appearance ofa speech ofMoses. Noth dated the DH to the middle ofthe 6th century B.C.E., shortly after 562, the date ofJehoiachin's release from prison, the final event recounted in the DH (2 Kgs 25:27-30). Noth found no evidence to indicate that the materials in the DH had been redacted earlier. The [writer] ... addressed his contemporaries in Babylonian exile, his purpose being entirely negative: to show them that their sufferings were the fully deserved consequences ofcenturies ofdecline in Israel's loyalty to Yahweh. This loyalty was measured in terms ofIsrael's obedience to the Deuteronomic law. Since Israel and Judah had failed to follow that law, their histories had ended in complete destruction, in accordance with the divine judgment envisaged by Deuteronomy. There was not the slightest glimmer ofhope for the future ... the report ofJehoiachin's release in 2 Kgs 25:27-30 was the result ofthe [writer's] ... conscientious reporting ofhistorical fact and was not intended to herald the commencement ofa new age for Judah and Israel." With regard to Noth's idea ofa Deuteronomistic History, his proposal, and variants ofhis proposal (see, e.g., Dillard-Longman, pp. 105, 122-123, 153-154), are to be rejected. We agree that there is a unity from Joshua through 2 Kings, that these books are religious history written from the same editorial standpoint, and that different sources were used in the composition ofportions ofthese books. However, we do not go along with Noth's proposal (and its variants), for the following reasons (briefly given). 1.
As has been discussed, these books were written by different authors, writing at different times. Also, Moses wrote Deuteronomy, as well as Genesis -Numbers. 2.
We reject Noth's idea that the author of the DH invented some historical material, and formulated speeches for the main characters. 3.
More can be said about the purpose ofthese books than what Noth claimed. 4.29 4.
We reject the idea ofvarious redactional levels; e.g., a later redactor correcting an earlier writer. We do not go along with the idea that there are various (conflicting) theologi~ contained in these books. Dillard and Longman's use of"Deuteronomistic History," "Deuteronomic History," and "DH" throughout their book is confusing. Usually in An Introduction to the Old Testament a) "DH" = "Deuteronomistic History," and b) the latter term and "Deuteronomic History" are used by them as equivalents. Usually "Deuteronomistic History" or "Deuteronomic History" in their book refers to Deuteronomy -2 Kings (although in places they are referring only to Joshua 2 Kings), whether the terms are being used by/of historical-critical scholars or other scholars (including Dillard and Longman). Further, Dillard -Longman take the position (p. 152) that Joshua -2 Kings is "a single literary work" (which also includes Deuteronomy 1-4 and 34?; see p. 149), though it is unclear whether Dillard and Longman believe this "work" was composed (at least for the most part) by one author/editor. Cr., e.g., pp. 96, 103-105, 112, 122-123, 136, 145-146, 149, 152-154, 162, and 209. 4.30 Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 5
1. Ruth 2. Proverbs 3. Song of Solomon 4. Ecclesiastes 5. Job 6. Prophets & Prophecy 7. Obadiah 8. Joel Unit 5 -Old Testament Isagogics
Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: 1. The isagogical matters pertaining to Ruth, Proverbs, Song ofSolomon, Ecclesiastes, Job, Obadiah, and Joel, and about prophets and prophecy in the Old Testament. Be able to: 1. Read these subjects with greater understanding and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1. Skim the contents ofRuth, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiates, Job, Obadiah, and Joel. 2. Unit 5 material in this student guide. 3. Dillard and Longman, pp. 129-134,235-265, 199-210,385-390,363-371. 4. Handout, "Wisdom," Proverbs 1-9 5. Handout, Prophets, Prophecy Writing Assignments None 5.1
1.
Ruth Author: The author is unknown. Talmudic tradition says that Samuel wrote Ruth, but this is unlikely, since the genealogy in Ruth 4:22 seems to imply that David was a famous man (probably king). Time of Composition: This, too, is uncertain, because no definite, precise information is available with regard to this matter, and the author is unknown. The book was composed later than the period ofthe judges, since the phrase in 4:7 was meant to explain a custom which was well known in that period. There is no need to suppose that the date of composition was later than the reign ofDavid (the custom mentioned in 4:7 could have been forgotten by the majority ofIsraelites or become unfamiliar to them by this time). Purpose: 1.
To record history. 2.
To give some ofthe ancestry ofKing David. The book accounts for the introduction ofnon­Israelite blood into the family line. 3.
To emphasize the importance offilial love and devotion. 4.
To show the importance ofwitnessing in a mixed marriage (the believing spouse witnessing to the unbelieving spouse). 5.
To show the marvellous working ofthe Lord. Ruth, a Moabitess, became a convert, and an ancestress ofDavid and Jesus Christ (Matthew 1 :5). The book reminds the reader that Christ came for the benefit of all people. 6.
To show that Gentiles could enter the fellowship ofGod's covenant people through repentance and faith in Yahweh. Salvation was not limited to the Israelites. In this sense, Ruth foreshadows the New Testament era, when Gentiles in large numbers would be brought to faith. 7.
To show the blessedness ofa marriage involving a good and godly husband and wife. Contents: See the outline in Dillard and Longman at the bottom ofp. 132. Selected Comments: The story ofRuth takes place during the period ofthe judges and is certainly a "change ofpace" from the Book ofJudges (which deals with the wickedness ofthe Israelites, warfare, and bloodshed). Pentateuchal principles involved in the story are redemption ofland by the kinsman-redeemer (Leviticus 25:23-25; 27:22-24) and levirate marriage (Deuteronomy 25:5-10). Evidently it had become customary to connect these two institutions, that is, to require the levirate marriage ofthe 5.2 redeemer ofthe land ofthe deceased relative. Also, the Book of Ruth indicates a slight development ofthe levirate law. Boaz was not a brother of the dead man, but a relative; neither was the "nearer" relative a brother. The act ofBoaz extends the levirate custom to other male relatives ofthe deceased in the event no brothers survive (or the surviving brotherls is/are already manied?). Some critical scholars have argued that the story of Ruth is fiction. As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 340) has pointed out, it is unlikely that a writer of fiction would set out to trace the line ofthe great King David to a Moabite ancestress. In the first chapter ofthe book Naomi is grief-stricken, depressed, and bitter. Ruth was God's instrument to bring help and healing to Naomi. Ruth exhibited Christ-like compassion. Luther referred to her as "a little Christ." Remember that the Book ofRuth was read at the Feast of Weeks /Pentecost, when the firstfiuits ofthe wheat harvest were dedicated to God. 2.
Proverbs Author: 1.
Chapters 1-22:16 (cf. 1:1; 10:1) and 25-29 (cf. 25:1) apparently came from Solomon. Since 1 Kings 4:32 states that Solomon's original collection ofproverbs numbered 3,000, there is in this book only a selection ofthe king's proverbs. Chapters 25-29 are proverbs published by men oJHezekiah (a technical phrase for Hezekiah's scribes maintained by the royal court); several of these proverbs or portions ofproverbs are repeated from Chapters 10: 1-22: 16. Hezekiah's scribes did this work a) because Hezekiah (who became sole ruler ofJudah ca. 715 B.C.) was a godly, reforming king (cf. 2 Chronicles 29:30), and b) because the Northern Kingdom had been ended by the Assyrians in 722 B.C., and the Southern Kingdom saw the need for preserving any word from an inspired author. 2.
A section is attributed to the wise men -22:17-24:22, 24:23-34 = 22: 17-24:34. These wise men probably belonged to the same class referred to in 1 Kings 4:31. Perhaps they preceded Solomon, and he may have gathered the collection of their proverbs which is in Proverbs. As Hanison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1012) explains, the cultural life ofthe Hebrews was molded by prophets, priests, and wise men (Jeremiah 18:18). These wise men were teachers ofwisdom. They do not appear to have been rigidly organized at any time during the period covered by the canonical Hebrew books. 3.
Chapter 30 comes from Agur, son ofJakeh. Agur may have been a non-Israelite; when he lived is unknown. Some translate 30:1 IIJakeh ofMassa" and suggest that Agur and Jakeh (and Lemuel, 31 :1) were from the tribe ofMassa, descendants ofIshrnael, who settled in northern Arabia (see Genesis 25:14; 1 Chronicles 1:30). 4.
Chapter 31:1-9 comes from King LemueL He certainly seems to be ofnon-Israelite origin; when he lived is unknown. Hanison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1018) notes the 5.3 influence ofAramaic in this section. 5.
Concerning Proverbs 31 :10-31, it is uncertain whether this description ofthe ideal, virtuous wife comes from Lemuel or another author. Time of Composition: Discussed above. Concerning the growth ofthe book, the following is only a proposal. Stage 1 1:1-9:18 + 10:1-24:34. This was the first collection ofproverbs, gathered by Solomon, which may have already been a single unit or two separate units. Stage 2 The first collection + 25: 1-29:27 (a new collection of Solomon's proverbs compiled by Hezekiah's scribes). Stage 2 mayor may not have included Chapters 30-31. a.
Some scholars think 1: 1-7 was added by Hezekiah's scribes. b.
The above proposal assumes the sayings ofthe "wise men" (22:17-24:34) came earlier and then were included in the "first collection," but this is not certain. c.
Chapters 30-31 (which consist ofAgur's writing, Lemuel's writing, and the acrostic piece concerning the godly wife) are like an appendix. When these chapters were added to Proverbs is uncertain. As indicated above, when the three sections were composed is unknown. With regard to the final shape ofProverbs, Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1018) concludes that "there is no positive evidence whatever for postulating a post-exilic date for the extant work. ..there is no reason to suppose that the work could not have been completed at any period from 700 B.C. [Hezekiah's time] onwards." Purpose: Proverbs focuses on one's relationship with his neighbor and the world. The book serves as a practical guide for successful living; it teaches the wise life. The basic nature of wisdom as viewed by Proverbs is summed up in 1:7. Thus the book has a theological approach in what it teaches. Wise living is sanctified living: glorifying God in every aspect oflife. Proverbs thus also emphasizes the primary importance ofone's relationship with God. That is the basis for everything else in life -for jUdging what is right, for a proper attitude toward material possessions, for working, for a right relationship toward one's neighbor, for a proper sense ofsecurity. Contents: See the outline in Dillard and Longman, p. 238 (1:1-9:18 is probably from Solomon, as discussed above). Selected Comments: Review the discussion in the Henneneutics course concerning the meaning ofthe Hebrew word 5.4 mashal, usually translated "proverb." In the Old Testament the term is used in a variety ofways. In Proverbs it mainly signifies either a maxim or aphorism (a short, concise saying which expresses wisdom) -e.g., 10:1-22:16 -or a short discourse or lesson (a passage involving several verses) -note the discourses in Chapters 1-9. The larger portion ofProverbs is aphorisms. Both the aphorisms and discourses of Proverbs have the usual types ofparallelism found in Hebrew poetry (in Proverbs mainly synonymous, antithetic, and synthetic). Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1011) points out that an additional type ofparallelism found in Proverbs, but not in Psalms, Lamentations, or Job, is known as a parabolic distich, in which one or more factual elements are related to a moral concept (e.g., Proverbs 26:3). Proverbs 1:4 indicates that to a large extent the book is directed at young people. A specific objective was to train and educate the young for the preservation ofthe family unit and social stability. As Hassell Bullock (An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books [Chicago: Moody, 1979], p. 170) writes, "the book ofProverbs is in no way a theological treatise, although some sublime concepts are included among the numerous subjects covered (e.g., 25:21-22). Therefore, we cannot require ofthe text the kind oftheological depth we might expect ofsome prophetic writings or one ofPaul's epistles." One aspect ofmodern study ofProverbs is the comparison ofthe book with other, extrabiblical wisdom writings ofthe ancient Near East. Such wisdom literature has been found in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and other non-Israelite countries. As Bullock (An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 171) observes, at times the wisdom literature ofother ancient Near Eastern countries deals with the same subjects and reaches similar conclusions as Israelite wisdom teaching. Many of the same practical approaches to life were held in common by more than one culture. Nevertheless, despite these similarities, Israelite wisdom literature also has a distinctiveness which sets it apart. For example, Solomon's wisdom simply was superior to that ofany other wise man: 1 Kings 4:30. Ofcourse, Solomon also was inspired. Proverbs and other Old Testament wisdom literature is monotheistic and Yahwistic, with all the corresponding ethical implications. One passage in Proverbs, 22:17-23:14, is very similar to the Egyptian document known as "The Instruction ofKing Amenemopet." See the discussion in Dillard and Longman, pp. 240-241. Against their conclusions (p. 241), two points can be made. First, it is by no means certain that Egypt was the "dominant" culture (especially in the time ofDavid and Solomon). Second, a good case can be made for seeing the Hebrew text as prior to the Egyptian text and as being used by the Egyptian author(s). Even if the Egyptian text was prior and used by the Hebrew wise man or men, this in no way takes away from the inspiration of the Hebrew passage. Adaptation of pagan sources to biblical theology (in this instance, it would have been from polytheism to Yahwistic monotheism) occurs in the New Testament (Acts 17:28). Writers in the Old and New Testaments made use ofextra-biblical sources (whether oral or written): the authors ofOld Testament historical books, Paul in 2 Timothy 3:8, and the author ofJude in vv. 9 and 14-15. Bullock (An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 173) concludes: "Nobody has 5.5 the franchise on truth but God. If one culture has come by means ofnatural revelation to share certain basic ideas and ethical principles with the biblical faith (cf. Rom. 1: 18-20), we are free to recognize that without diminishing the value ofand need for special revelation." Thus, there is no problem with the possibility ofa portion ofProverbs being based on a piece of literature from the pagan culture ofEgypt. Another possibility is this: both the Hebrew text and the Egyptian text used the same independent source. Read the handout "'Wisdom,' Provo 1-9." The position ofthis handout differs from that of Dillard and Longman, p. 245. 3.
Song of Solomon Author: 1:1 indicates that Solomon (who ruled from ca. 971-931 B.C.) is the author. Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 332) and other scholars have pointed out additional reasons for seeing Solomon as author. 1.
The book has some points ofcontact with other writings ofSolomon (linguistic parallels). 2.
The book seems to reflect a time before the Divided Kingdom. The author speaks ofplaces located in both northern and southern Israel as ifthese places all belonged to the same kingdom. 3.
The author shows an extensive knowledge ofanimals and plants. This corresponds to the historical notice (1 Kings 4:33) about Solomon's great knowledge in the field of nature. 4.
Mention is made in 1:9 ofPharaoh's chariots. Compare this to 1 Kings 10:28-29, which possibly says (there are textual problems) that Solomon imported chariots and horses from Egypt. Also, Solomon was married to a daughter ofPharaoh. 5.
The book shows many evidences ofroyal lUxury and an abundance ofcostly imported products (cf. 1 Kings 10:14-27). Time of Composition: Discussed above. Purpose: The purpose ofthe Song is connected with how the book is interpreted. Various interpretative approaches have been proposed. 1.
The allegorical approach. Review the discussion of allegory in the Hermeneutics course. The Song does not meet the criteria for being an allegory. 2.
The typical approach. Solomon, regarded as the main male character, is seen as a type of Christ, and the main female character as a type ofthe Church. However, where is the New Testament warrant which justifies this approach? 3.
The literal approach. The Song is seen as presenting actual history and nothing more. This approach does not treat adequately the Song. Why is this particular history (a detailed 5.6 description of a husband's love for his wife, and the wife's love for her husband) preserved in Scripture? 4.
The dramatic approach. The Song is seen as a drama, and nothing more. Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 334) responds: "But drama did not make its way to any extent among the Semitic peoples. Also, the Song does not purport to be a drama any more than it does an allegory. It is unlikely that the pious of the ages would have regarded the song as a divinely inspired composition if it were merely a drama ofsuch nature." 5.
The erotic-literary approach. The bookis regarded simply as a collection ofindependent love (and/or nuptial) songs, and shows no unity. Yet would this book be in the canon ifit were merely such a collection? Further, as Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1051) observes, the Song "has distinct indications ofliterary unity ... the repetitions in the book point to the activities ofa single hand, while in addition there is a greater unity ofstyle and theme than would be the case in a diverse collection of lyrics from several authors in widely separated ages." 6.
The liturgical approach. It is explained that the Song was borrowed from a pagan liturgy, which was associated with a fertility cult. Involved with the cult were sacred prostitutes. As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 335) states, "it is extremely unlikely that, had such been the origin ofthe Song, it would have been accepted into the Canon." 7.
The Christo logical approach. It is explained that in the Song it is actually Christ speaking to the Church, and the Church speaking to Christ, but in figurative language. However, this approach appears to be somewhat forced, and does not seem to be the natural reading ofthe text. 8.
The parabolic approach, which is the position ofthis course. The Song is regarded as a dramatic parable. Review the discussion ofparables in the Hermeneutics course, and note specifically what was expressed concerning the Song at the end ofthe discussion ofparables and allegories. A side feature ofthis parable is that it would remind people ofthe holiness and beauty ofmarriage (and the sexual relationship within marriage), and that the human body is God's good creation. Contents: The Song is rather difficult to analyze. Young's (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 337) outline follows; other outlines are possible. Chapters 1:1 -2:7 The bride longs for the bridegroom. They meet and praise one another. Chapters 2:8 -3:5 Their love increases. The maiden sings the praises ofher beloved. Chapters 3:6 -5:1 This section contains the espousal, and praise ofthe bride. Chapters 5:2 -6:9 The bride longs for her beloved and sings his praises while he is gone from her. Chapters 6:10 -8:4 The beauty ofthe bride is described. 5.7 Chapters 8:5-14 Here the beauty oflove is shown. Selected Comments: With regard to the Song, there is no specific reference to sin, no specific reference to the religious realm, and there is a question ifGod's name occurs in the book. 8:6 has been translated in different ways. Some think that in this verse there is mention ofYahweh -"flame of Yahweh." According to Jewish tradition a man had to be thirty years old before he could read the book. The Song, one ofthe Megilloth, was read during Passover. 4.
Ecclesiastes Author: Until the time ofLuther there was minimal questioning about authorship: most assumed Solomon to be the author. That is the position ofthis course. The following are reasons for proposing Solomonic authorship. 1.
1:1 -"son ofDavid" -and 1:12 -"king over Israel in Jerusalem" -point to Solomon as author; cf. 2:9. 2.
1:16 relates the great wisdom ofthe author. 3.
2:4-11 -indicating the massive wealth, many servants, and projects ofthe author -is reminiscent of the report in 1 Kings about Solomon's reign. 4.
The sequence ofbooks in the Septuagint testifies to Solomonic authorship: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song ofSolomon (evidently all being ascribed to Solomon) follow the Psalter (a large portion ofwhich came from David), as son follows father. However, many have denied Solomonic authorship. Much ofthe following discussion on authorship is taken from Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, pp. 526-530). Luther, in his Table Talk, says: "Solomon himself did not write the Book of Ecclesiastes, but it was produced by Sirach [Jesus ben Sirach] at the time ofthe Maccabees ...!t is a sort ofTalmud, compiled from many books, probably from the library ofKing Ptolemy Euergetes of Egypt." Today liberal scholarship rejects Solomonic authorship, but so also do many conservative commentators (e.g., Hengstenberg, Delitzsch, Young, Leupold, Harrison, Pfeiffer). The trend is to put Ecclesiastes in the post-exilic period. Estimates ofthe precise date, however, range over almost the entire post-exilic period. What are some ofthe reasons for rejection ofSolomonic authorship? 1.
The book does not claim to be written by Solomon. All other writings ofSolomon bear his name (proverbs, Song ofSolomon). It is not likely that a person as prominent as Solomon would have felt any need to choose a pen name (NIV: the Teacher; see below, under Selected Comments). 5.8 2.
The phrase "king in Jerusalem" (1: 1) does not occur elsewhere as a designation for Solomon. Usually he is called "King ofIsrael" (e.g., 2 Kings 23:13). See also Nehemiah 13:26; 1 Kings 11 :42. 3.
1: 12 -"I was" king in Jerusalem, suggesting that the condition no longer prevailed. 4.
It is often argued that the book indicates very difficult economic and social circumstances (e.g., 1:2-11; 3:1-15; 4:1-3; 7:1), such as would fit much ofthe post-exilic period, but scarcely the prosperity ofSolomon's reign. Also, it is argued that the author seemed powerless to do anything about the injustice and abuses he observed (3:16; 4:1; 5:8). 5.
The major argument for a post-exilic date is linguistic. When compared to classical and Mishnaic Hebrew, the Hebrew ofEcclesiastes is seen as closer to the latter. It is argued that the lateness ofthe Hebrew is evidenced by both vocabulary and syntax. 6.
1:16 -"all who were over Jerusalem before me." How many Israelite kings were over Jerusalem before Solomon? The following is a response (in defense ofSolo monic authorship) to the reasons as they are listed above. 1.
Why could not Solomon have chosen this identification? Cf. 1 John, which gives no author's name, and 2 and 3 John ("the Elder"). 2.
This is an embarrassingly weak argument. The phrase "king in Jerusalem" is not inaccurate with regard to Solomon, and "Israel" implies the United Monarchy. 1:12 is close to 1 Kings 11:42. 3.
"I was" is not necessarily indicating that the author's kingship was over. The author simply is talking about an earlier point in his life and reign, when he made these observations, and carried on these activities. Also, it is possible to translate 1:12 as "I have become king," or "I became king," or "I have been king." 4.
Oppressive policies existed in Solomon's reign (1 Kings 12: 1-4). Not every Israelite prospered during his rule or throughout his entire kingship. With regard to the author's inability to correct injustices, no matter how good a king is, and how powerful, it is still impossible to wipe out all corruption and injustice. There cannot be a perfect reign in this sinful world. Also, consider the larger wisdom context: the wisdom literature speaks to circumstances that recur constantly in human experience, and there is nothing in Ecclesiastes which cannot easily be read in that way. 5.
The linguistic analysis is not decisive for positing a post-exilic date. The linguistic argument is an ambivalent one. a.
The presence ofAramaisms is not necessarily decisive for a late date, in light of archaeological discoveries at Ugarit. The Arameans were present in the western portion 5.9 ofthe Fertile Crescent especially from about 1200 B.C. on. The political and commercial ties with the Aramean people ofthe Syrian areas were close during the reign ofSolomon. b.
Various scholars have put forth weighty arguments in favor ofheavy Phoenician­Canaanite influence on the book's language. While they think ofEcclesiastes as being early post-exilic, their arguments could also be used to support Solomonic authorship. c.
Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, pp. 482-483) has proposed that the style and vocabulary ofEcclesiastes are due to its being a certain kind ofwisdom literature. He theorizes that Ecclesiastes belongs to a genre ofphilosophical discourse developed in North Israel (thus having Phoenician and Aramaic traits) prior to the Solomonic era. Ecclesiastes is our only example ofthe style and language unique to this genre in Hebrew literature. d.
There simply is not sufficient Hebrew literature (preserved) to construct with confidence any certain chart ofthe development ofthe language in different times and areas beyond very broad generalities. A definitive history ofthe Hebrew language is still not possible (Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 198). But based on what we do know, we can say that Ecclesiastes fits into no known period in the history of the Hebrew language (Archer, A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 481). (It has been suggested that a Solomonic text was later updated linguistically -a recension -like a revision ofChaucer or even Shakespeare into modem English.) 6.
Regarding 1 :16 -the statement does not specify Israelite kings, and Jerusalem was an ancient city by Solomon's time. Time of Composition: Discussed above. The author ofthis course suggests that Ecclesiastes may have been composed by Solomon when he was an old man, toward the end ofhis life and reign. 1 Kings 11: 1-13 reports Solomon's faithlessness to the Lord and leaves the reader with a question as to what Solomon's spiritual condition was when he died. Perhaps Ecclesiastes answers that question, indicating that Solomon came back to his "spiritual senses" shortly before his death (cf. 7:26 [and compare this verse to certain verses in Proverbs], 28). Solomon tasted the bitter fruit which results from disobedience to God, but emerged from his negative experiences a humbled and wiser man, by God's grace. Purpose: The author wants to impart to his readers wisdom he has gained from his observations and experiences during his lifetime. Contents: Different outlines are possible. Note the general outline presented by Dillard and Longman, pp. 250 (bottom)-251 (top), and their discussion ofthe book's structure in the second and third paragraphs ofp. 251 (reject their notion, however, that the author adopts and then discards the literary persona ofSolomon). The majority of scholars agree that, as with most wisdom literature, it is difficult, ifnot 5.10 impossible, to give a detailed analysis ofthe structure ofEcclesiastes. In much of the book there is something close to a "stream of consciousness" flavor (Hummel, The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 531). Still, the book does have thought segments and recurring themes. The alternation between the author being referred to in the third person (besides the passages given by Dillard and Longman see also 7:27) and the first person is no problem; this is seen frequently in books of the Latter Prophets. Selected Comments: The English title "Ecclesiastes" comes from the Septuagint, which called the book Ekklesiastes. This is a translation ofthe Hebrew title. The Hebrew title is qoheleth, a feminine singUlar participle from the verbal root meaning to assemble, gather, and related to the noun assembly, convocation, congregation. Qoheleth is the name ofthe author/speaker in Ecclesiastes. 1: 1 has the phrase "the words of Qoheleth". This name also appears in 1:2, 12; 7:27; 12:8,9, 10. The feminine form is usually explained this way: it is referring to an office, function, or a title (thus it is a type of abstract noun, for which Hebrew usually employs the feminine gender). Another possible explanation, as noted by Bullock (An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 190), is that "the name Qoheleth refers to wisdom, which is feminine in gender, and is thus applied to Solomon as the exemplar ofWisdom." Qoheleth is followed by a masculine predicate, with one exception (7:27), presumably because the office was filled by a man. Qoheleth has been translated as Assembler, Gatherer, but better is Preacher (or Teacher), because he who assembles a congregation does it for the purpose of addressing it. So Qoheleth is not a proper name. However, since it is only once used with the definite article ("the"; 12:8), it seems that the author of the book used the title as a pen name. Ecclesiastes has frequent alternation ofviewpoint. Statements range from what appears to be agnosticism to traditional orthodoxy. The book seems to move back and forth between delight in life and a melancholy skepticism. Because ofthese "contradictions" questions arose in the past concerning the book's canonicity. Thus, Ecclesiastes has been subjected to various interpretations, and has been frequently misinterpreted. Following are general thoughts with regard to the book's contents. 1.
The author looks at a question he raises sometimes from the standpoint of an unbeliever, and sometimes from the standpoint ofa believer. He also looks at different sides of a question. As a result he makes claims that, unless they are rightly understood, seem to be opposites. As Herbert C. Leupold (Exposition ofEcclesiastes [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1952], p. 21) observes: "He speaks ofthe value ofwisdom, yet seems to contend that the acquisition of wisdom is ofno profit. He seems to counsel extreme soberness, yet he advocates being ofa merry heart." Two statements may seem to be opposite each other, but each, understood in its context, is proper. Compare Paul, in Philippians, saying that we are to work out our salvation with fear and trembling (2:12), but that we are also to rejoice in the Lord always (4:4); see in addition Psalm 2:11. 2.
The book is a frank record ofSolomon's struggles with problems: his dialogues with himself; 5.11 his vacillations as he wrestled with certain issues, issues which he states in a very honest way; and how he had arrived at certain conclusions. There are records ofthis kind ofpersonal struggle, with corresponding startling statements, in other portions of Scripture: e.g., Psalm 73; Jeremiah 20:7-18. Yet the author ofEcclesiastes (as well as the authors ofsimilar passages in Scripture) is writing under inspiration, and is no longer skeptical or troubled by doubt. As Leupold (Exposition ofEcclesiastes, p. 19) explains, the author records what he had gone through, but at the time ofcomposition is now certain and finn in his position, and is writing for the purpose ofhelping those who will listen to his words. 3.
The author is pointing out the temporary nature ofexistence on this earth (cf. Psalm 90), and the limits ofhuman wisdom. Man cannot probe the depths ofGod's wisdom, and always figure out God's purposes. Man simply will not have all the answers this side ofthe grave; only God has all the answers; The author refers to God throughout as "Elohim," and not "Yahweh" (God's personal, covenant name), stressing God's role as Creator and Sovereign. The book therefore gives evidence ofresignation on the part ofSolomon, but, as Leupold (Exposition ofEcclesiastes, p. 20) states, "a resignation coupled with a clear and intelligent faith." Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 534) puts it this way: "Qoheleth is not disillusioned, but unillusioned [or, he has a godly disillusionment]; not a cynic, but a realist. Even less is he any sort ofcrypto-atheist; God is obviously fundamental to his whole outlook.II 4.
At the same time, the author speaks ofthe enjoyment ofHfe on this earth, about living this life to the fullest. God gives us earthly blessings, and we are to enjoy them. The proper perspective, though, is to realize that the world is God's creation, and everything we have is from God. We are to use and enjoy the things ofthis world for God's glory. This alone gives life meaning; life apart from God can have no meaning. Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 351) comments: "God is the ultimate standard and point ofreference by which every aspect oflife must be interpreted. Ifman or the world be regarded as the ultimate standard or point ofreference, all is vanity. All then becomes without meaning, and can lead only to despair. The only possible interpretation ofthe world then is to regard it as the creation ofGod and to use and enjoy it for His glory." 5.
In calling for the enjoyment ofthe present, not in dissipation and foolish living, but in accepting today and its pleasures as gifts from God, Solomon urges the "golden mean of conduct" (Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, p. 194). This involves avoiding extremes and excesses, and following a path ofmoderation. This also extends to matters ofreligion: cf. 7:15-18. This passage refers, on the one hand, to a wrong kind ofrighteousness based on man-made laws, which leads to sinful pride (cf. Matthew 5:20); and on the other hand, to not giving free reign to the sinful nature (cf. Romans 8:13). 6.
Thus, Solomon does speak about the importance oftrue, godly wisdom, which is indeed 5.12 limited, but nevertheless essentiaL This wisdom is a sure guide for life, and is summed up in 12:13. Proper fear ofGod is a product ofsaving faith, and is one motivation for living according to God's will. Solomon is saying: have a right appreciation and enjoyment ofthis life, but do not put your trust in earthly goods or human resources, which are not an end in themselves. A void the evil things ofthis world; stay away from sin. See in addition 8:12-13 and 12:7, 14. Ecclesiastes, one ofthe Megilloth, was read during the Festival ofTabernacles. 5. Job Author: It is unknown who wrote Job. The book itself gives no clear indication ofits human author, and there is no reliable evidence outside ofJob. Time of Composition: As the author is uncertain, so also is the time ofcomposition. Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 319-320) proposes that "the view... which seems to be most free from objection regards the book as composed at some time during the reign ofSolomon." Following are reasons for this viewpoint. 1.
Job is wisdom literature, and during the age ofSolomon there was a flourishing ofwisdom and wisdom literature. 2.
Part ofJob is written in the style ofProverbs. However, other conservative scholars place the composition ofJob at a later date. For example, Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 1040-1041) writes: " ... a date ofcomposition not later than the end ofthe fifth century B.C. would seem to account for most ofthe peculiar features ofthe book, despite the inconclusive nature ofmuch ofthe evidence." The viewpoint ofthe author ofthis course is that Job was written during the time ofSolomon, if not before. Purpose: The book relates the story ofJob and deals with the question, "Why do the righteous suffer?," giving a partial answer to that question. Contents: See the outline in Dillard and Longman at the bottom ofp. 201, and note their analysis ofthe book's structure (pp. 202-205). There is no need to posit a third Zophar speech (as Dillard and Longman do, p. 203); 27:13-23 can be considered part ofJob's speech. Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1033) writes: "The general pattern ofthe poetic speeches exhibits a progressive shortening, so that the absence ofa third speech by Zophar need not be particularly surprising. Indeed, in his second speech (Job 20:1-29), it was becoming evident that he had already encountered the law ofdiminishing returns in his argument, and this simple fact may constitute the sole reason why he was not credited with a third speech." Selected Comments: The story in the book actually took place; Job was a historical person (cf. Ezekiel 14:14; James 5.13 5: 11). No precise date is given in the book. Nevertheless, a good case can be made for placing the events in the second millennium B.C. 1.
The story has a patriarchal atmosphere (occurring during the time ofAbraham, Isaac, and Jacob, during the early second millennium B.C.). a.
Without priesthood or shrine, Job performed his own sacrifices (1 :5; cf. 42:8-9). b.
Job's possessions, like Abraham's and Jacob's, were measured in sheep, camels, oxen, asses, and servants (1 :3; cf. Genesis 12:16; 32:5). c.
Job's life-span is matched only in the Pentateuch. Cf. 42: 16 -"after this" -and recall that Isaac lived to be one-hundred-eighty (Genesis 35:28). d.
There is an absence of allusion to Mosaic law. 2.
The monetary unit in 42:11 (kesitah) occurs elsewhere in Scripture only in Genesis 33:19 and Joshua 24:32. 3.
The name "Job," according to archeological finds, was an ordinary western Semitic name in the second millennium B.C., although its derivation and meaning are still uncertain. The other names in the book are appropriate for that millennium. The conclusion is that the events took place in the second millennium, probably in the first half. The location ofthe Land ofUz is uncertain. It did lay outside ofCanaanlIsrael. Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 324) comments: liThe introductory words (,there was a man' ... ) evidently show that this is not a narrative ofa portion of the Israelitish history, but rather a beginning ofan extra-Israelitish history." Uz apparently lay to the east ofCanaanlIsrael (1 :3; cf. Judges 6:3, 33; Isaiah 11:14; Ezekiel 25:4, 10). Uz perhaps was in the south, in the vicinity of Edom or northern Arabia (which could still be considered an eastern location), for the following reasons. 1.
At least two ofJob's friends, Eliphaz the Temanite and Zophar the Naamathite, seem to have come from a southern location. 2.
In Lamentations 4:21 the Edomites are spoken ofas occupying Uz ("UZ" is omitted, however, in the Septuagint). The Hauran region, south ofDamascus, has also been proposed as the location ofUz. From evidence in the book (1 :2-3, 14-17; 29:7; 31:8, 38-40) it appears that Job was a semi­nomad who lived in a walled city and grew crops (outside the city) during part ofthe year, and migrated with his flocks and herds throughout the rest ofthe year. Chapters 1 and 2 are prose, Chapters 3-42:6 are poetry (except for 32:1-6), and Chapter 42:7-17 is prose. Concerning the poetry of the dialogues -did Job and the other men actually speak that way, or were their speeches put into poetic form by the author ofthe book? It is not impossible that the characters spoke poetically, and the book contains a verbatim account oftheir dialogues. Perhaps more likely is the possibility that the characters spoke prose, and that their speeches were then put into poetic form, but that nothing was lost by way ofcontent with this transition (the book contains an accurate record ofwhat was said). 5.14 Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar applied the principle of divine retribution in an automatic, mechanical fashion. Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 455) thinks that an adequate psychological motive for their persistence in carrying on the controversy with Job over so many chapters is to be found in the dilemma into which his catastrophic disaster had placed them. Ifa man ofsuch high reputation could suffer so devastating a misfortune, their own security was imperiled by the possibility that the same thing could happen to themselves. Their basic motive in attempting to elicit from Job a confession of sin was to establish their own sense ofsecurity. Ifin point offact Job had been guilty ofsome grievous sin of which the public had no knowledge, his overwhelming disaster could be easily understood as the retribution of the righteous God. Failing to secure from him any such confession despite all their diligent efforts to compel from him an admission of guilt, they felt unable to return horne relieved and reassured that calamity would be kept from their door if they only "lived a good life." The speeches ofElihu are a surprise. A change in the flow of the book is indicated by the short prose introduction (32:1-5). Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, and Job, have "shot their wads." The reader next expects God to speak. The Elihu speeches are the section ofthe book most attacked by critical scholars. They explain that these speeches are a later addition by a later author(s), and worthless as far as contributing to the story and message of the book. What are their reasons for considering the speeches a later addition? 1.
Elihu is not mentioned in the prologue or prior to his appearance. 2.
The epilogue says nothing about Elihu. 3.
The rhetoric and literary style ofthis section is said to be significantly different from the other parts ofthe book (e.g., the presence ofAramaic words). 4.
Elihu quoted Job verbatim, but this did not happen elsewhere in the book. Following is a response to the reasons as they are listed above. 1.
Elihu may have been part ofthe retinue ofEliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, or one oftheir pupils (his youth is indicated in 32:6-10), or a scribe, and thus was not singled out for special mention. Or, his mention was delayed deliberately to enhance the surprise and increase the suspense which these speeches produce (William LaSor, David Hubbard, and Frederic Bush, Old Testament Survey, p. 571). Or, Elihu's speeches may have been added at a later date by the author ofthe book without a harmonizing ofthe details by adding his name to the prologue, which was already written. 2.
Perhaps because Elihu both celebrated God's wondrous mysteries and rebuked Job with less venom than did Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, he did not require direct censure (LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, pp. 571-572). Or again, the author may have added Elihu's speeches at a later date without a harmonizing ofthe details by adding his name to the epilogue, which was already written. 5.15 3.
Reason #3 is not decisive. Elihu may have come from a different background than the other speakers. To a certain extent he takes up different subjects and arguments, which can call for different wording. Harrison Qntroduction to the Old Testament, p. 1035) comments that lithe presence ofAramaisms in one section of a poetic composition that abounds in difficult and obscure expressions [the book is a great challenge to translate] need be no indication at all that the particular passage is spurious." 4.
As Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 1033, 1035) explains, it is probable that Job quoted his three friends, placing in the process a different emphasis upon the words (cf. Job 20:29 and 27:13). Thus, there need be no problem with regard to Elihu's quoting Job. Also, ifElihu wanted to quote Job, why could'nt he? The Elihu speeches have their place in Job. 1.
They enhance the suspense by postponing the climax. The reader was expecting to hear from God. 2.
Elihu tries to correct Job and his three friends. This section shows that younger wisdom basically is no more effective than older. 3.
Elihu makes an advance on the arguments ofEliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar by stressing the disciplinary and edl).cative value of suffering. 4.
Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1035) points out that Elihu makes more explicit the earlier hints at a doctrine ofsalvation by God's grace through faith (33:26-30). 5.
Elihu's speeches prepare for God's speeches. They stress Job's ignorance of God's ways, and they emphasize God's power, majesty, and sovereignty. According to Scripture, there are various answers to the question, "Why do the righteous suffer?" At times this is due to the chastening ofthe Lord. However, the believer, because he is living in a sinful world, may suffer because ofhis faith in Jesus Christ, or because he takes a godly stance in opposition to wickedness. The Book ofJob provides the answer that sometimes we don't know, or fully understand, why the righteous suffer (cf. John 9:3). Job in the book was never told about the meeting ofSatan and God. Finite man cannot fully comprehend the infinite wisdom ofGod, or totally grasp the mystery ofHis rule. We may not always see the full picture, but only pieces of God's mosaic. God's wisdom is far above our wisdom (Romans 11 :33-36). As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 331) explains, "Job and his sufferings have their place in God's all-wise, incomprehensible disposition ofthings. All is well. Why should Job seek to penetrate the mystery? God is upon the throne. That is enough." In all things God is working for the good ofthose who love Him (Romans 8:28). As a result ofhis ordeal, Job's faith has been strengthened, he has been properly humbled, he has been refined spiritually, he has found peace, and he has grown in wisdom. The Book ofJob encourages continual trust in the Lord. 5.16 '" ... ~ -~---r -"'" . -J _ ....... -.....V .... " '-'..........V ............ \f. ,j.o,)UVA.J.J., t.J.,j.\J
book introduces a God who is free to work his surprises, correct human distortions ... He was free to enter into the Satan's test and tell none of the participants about it, to time his intervention and detennine its agenda ... God is never unrighteous (what all deserve from God is only damnation), but we cannot pigeon­hole Him. The book teaches about Satan (that name means adversary). We see that he is opposed to God; he is also opposed to human beings. Satan wanted to destroy Job's relationship with God. Yet God's control over Satan is absolute: he can do only as much as God allows, or permits him, to do. Further, God's purpose and will, as to why He let Job suffer, prevailed. LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush (Old Testament Survey, p. 583) comment: "The absence ofthe Satan from the epilogue is not 'to be regretted as a flaw in the harmony ofthe prologue and epilogue,' but a deliberate factor in the book's message. God, not the Satan, is sovereign ... The Satan is but an interloper in the relationship of God and Job as depicted in the book's beginning and ending." 6. Prophets and Prophecy Read the handout "Prophecy, Prophets," which is a summary of Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, pp. 295-299. God allowed the prophets to see the future, and they wrote about what would take place with complete accuracy. Certain ofthe prophetic passages dealing with what lay ahead exhibit prophetic perspective. That is, in such passages the prophets wrote about certain future events as ifthey would happen one right after the other. However, we know from our New Testament perspective that there is/are a time gap(s) between those events. This characteristic in the prophetic writings can also be described as a telescoping, or a blending together, of events. 7. Obadiah Author: The prophet Obadiah. No mention is made ofhis father's name or his home region. He generally is believed to have been from Judah, because ofthe message ofhis book. "Obadiah" was a common name in Old Testament history; in the Old Testament narratives about a dozen people have this name. Time of Composition: The precise time ofcomposition is uncertain. Different factors enter into the consideration ofthis matter. 5.17 1.
To what historical event(s) are vv. 11-14 to be related? There have been various scholarly
proposals, ranging from an incident in the reign ofJehoram (ca. 848-841 B.C.) to the fall of
Jerusalem in 587/6 B.C.
2. There are striking parallels between Obadiah 1-9, 16 and Jeremiah 49:7,9-10, 12, 14-16,22. Which prophet wrote first, which second (and borrowed from the first)? Or were both taking from the same independent prophetic source? Or were both simply inspired by the Holy Spirit to write on their own, and independently, similar material? 3. There is similarity between Obadiah and Joel, though this is not as close as that between Obadiah and Jeremiah (#2). Cf. especially Obadiah 10, 11, 15, and 17 with Joel 1:15; 2:1, 32; 3:3-4, 7, 14, 17, 19. But what is the connection between Obadiah and Joel, if any? Perhaps such similar expressions were used in public worship and so became part ofcommon language. Also, there is a question as to when Joel is to be dated. About all that can be said for certain is that Obadiah wrote before the destruction of Edom, which took place toward the end ofthe sixth century and perhaps into the beginning of the fifth century B.C. At that time, the Nabatean Arabs invaded and occupied Edom, driving the Edomites from their homeland. The Edomites were pushed north and forced to settle in the Negeb and southern Judah, as far north as Hebron. This downfall of Edom and shifting of the Edomite population is reflected in Malachi 1 :2-5 (which reports the fulfillment ofObadiah 1-14). Purpose: To foretell God's judgment on Edom, and on all nations; and to proclaim the
deliverance ofGod's people and their triumph on Judgment Day.
Contents:
Verses 1 -14 Future judgment on Edom, and the reasons for this judgment.
Verses 15 -21 Judgment Day and the ultimate victory ofGod's kingdom.
Selected Comments:
Among the prophets Edom is at times seen as a representative of all powers and nations which
are hostile to God and His people. The destruction ofEdom symbolized and foreshadowed the
destruction of all these unbelieving, ungodly nations and powers throughout world history, but
especially on Judgment Day.
Judgment Day is described in Scripture, including the Old Testament prophecies, as both the day
when all are judged by the Judge, and also as the day ofthe final, show-down battle, when God's
forces will overthrow, and do away with forever, all evil forces. The victory of God's people on
that day can be described as their trampling down the wicked, or conquering them, or possessing
the territory ofthe wicked. However, keep in mind that similar words and phrases can be used in
different contexts with different meanings. In Obadiah 17 and 18 "Zion," "Jacob, If and "Joseph"
stand for God's kingdom, which is made up ofall believers.
There are text-critical problems in Obadiah 19-21, which add to the challenge ofinterpreting
5.18 these verses. 8. Joel Author: The prophet Joel, the son ofPethuel. Since Joel does not mention the northern
kingdom, but does name Judah and Jerusalem, it seems that his ministry was in the Southern
Kingdom.
Time of Composition: Note, in the discussion ofDillard and Longman (pp. 365-367), points 1,
2,3 (particulary noticeable is the absence ofmention ofBabylonia, which would not be fully
explained even by a date ofcomposition for Joel after the fall ofthe city Babylon), 4, 6, 9, 11,
and the list ofproposed dates on p. 367. That there is no mention ofthe Northern Kingdom
(Dillard and Longman, p. 365, #5) simply may be due to the fact that Joel received word from
the Lord only concerning Judah. Also, "Israel" certainly could be used as a reference to Judah
before 722 B.C. In conclusion, dogmatism must be avoided when proposing a time of
composition for the book. The evidence, however, does seem to tilt in favor of seeing Joel as
written in the ninth century B.C. (perhaps during the minority ofJoash). An interpretation ofthe
book does not depend upon the date ofcomposition.
Purpose: The purpose ofthe book is a) to record Joel's prophetic word to Judah during a
particular time ofjudgment from the Lord (when the land was afflicted with a locust plague and
drought); and b) to foretell judgments from God on Judah and all nations, which will culminate
on Judgment Day; and c) to describe the New Testament Church and the preservation and
everlasting endurance ofGod's spiritual kingdom.
Contents:
Chapter 1 Present judgment from the Lord.
A. Verses 1-12: the terrible locust plague described. B. Verses 13-20: a call to repentance, and a description ofthe drought. Chapter 2: 1-11 The coming Day ofthe Lord (future judgments from God, culminating in Judgment Day). Joel uses imagery borrowed from the present locust plague. Chapter 2:12-27 Call to repentance, and God's immediate deliverance and blessing (evidently the people repented). A. Verses 12-17: the exhortation to repent. B. Verses 18-27: God's immediate (in the near future) deliverance and blessing. Chapter 2:28 -3:21 Futurejudgments and Judgment Day, and the Messianic Age and the New Creation. A. 2:28-32: the Messianic Age, climaxing in Judgment Day. B. 3:1-16: Judgment Day, foreshadowed by previous judgments. C. 3:17-21: the blessings of God's spiritual kingdom and the New Creation. 5.19 Selected Comments: In Chapter 1 there is no doubt that Judah is being chastened by the Lord for its wickedness, but Joel differs from other prophets ofIsrael in that he makes no mention ofthe sins which brought about this judgment. In 1:1 -2:17 Joel is speaking (as God's mouthpiece), and in 2:18 -3:21 God is speaking (through Joel). Again, in 2:28-32 Joel prophesies concerning the New Testament era. This prophecy began to be fulfilled on the first Christian Pentecost (cf. Acts 2), continues to be fulfilled today, and will culminate on Judgment Day. In 2:32 "Mount Zion" and "Jerusalem" stand for the Kingdom of God, the whole Christian Church. 5.20
Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 6
1. Amos 2. Jonah 3. Hosea 4. Micah 5. Isaiah 6. Nahum Unit 6 -Old Testament Isagogics
Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: 1.
The isagogical matters pertaining to Amos, Jonah, Hosea, Micah, Isaiah and Nahum. Be able to: 1.
Read these subjects with greater understanding and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1.
Skim the contents ofAmos, Jonah, Hosea, Micah, Isaiah, and Nahum. 2.
Unit 6 material in this student guide. 3.
Dillard and Longman, pp. 373-384, 391-395, 353-362, 397-402, 267-283, 403-408. 4.
Handout, Young, pp. 205-211 5.
Handout, Maier, pp. 85-87 Writing Assignments None 6.1
1. Amos Author: The prophet Amos. See the discussion in Dillard and Longman, pp. 375-377.
Time of Composition: Sometime in the eighth century B.C. See the discussion in Dillard and
Longman, p. 375.
Purpose: To leave a record of the messages he preached in the Northern Kingdom.
Contents:
Chapters 1:1 -2:16 Oracles against various nations and the Southern Kingdom.
Chapters 3:1 -6:14 Oracles directed to the Northern Kingdom.
Chapters 7: 1 -9: lOA series offive visions depicting coming judgment. 7: 11-17 recounts the
meeting between Amaziah and Amos.
Chapter 9: 11-15 A prophecy concerning the Messianic Kingdom.
Selected Comments:
God called this layman to be a prophet, and then sent Amos from Judah into the Northern
Kingdom, where he preached the revelations God gave to him. After delivering the word ofthe
Lord Amos presumably returned to the Southern Kingdom to Tekoa, and wrote down this book,
in which he gives us a summary and the quintessence ofhis messages. His poetry may be
classed with the very best in Hebrew literature.
Remember that the time of Amos' ministry was a period of resurgence and outward prosperity
and glory for both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms. Syria and Assyria were unable to
threaten the Northern Kingdom, and Egypt in the south was weak. In this power vacuum both
Jeroboam II and Uzziah extended the borders oftheir kingdoms.
Experiencing a sense of security, the people of the Northern Kingdom pursued after material
goods. This preoccupation with materialistic goals went hand in hand with moral and religious
corruption. Soon a powerful, rich class emerged, the middle class was greatly reduced in size
and influence, and the condition of the poor class did not improve, but worsened. The Northern
Kingdom was polluted with dishonesty and cheating; selfishness; greed; sexual immorality;
neglect, then oppression of the poor. The rich dominated not only the poor but also judges.
Those who were poor and defrauded seldom if ever received justice in the courts because of
bribery ofcorrupt officials.
The religious situation in the North certainly did not improve. The sin ofJeroboam II was continued -involving a large number of the people (much ofthis worship was only external ritualism, lacking any sincerity ofheart). Further, many blended in idolatrous practices with their so-called worship ofYahweh. They worshipped God with their lips, but their hearts were far from Him. The people of the North were smug, confident, and secure in the belief that, since they were 6.2 the chosen people, no calamity could come upon them. The rich thought that their prosperity indicated that God was pleased with them, that He was blessing them, and that He would continue to do so. They longed for the Day ofthe Lord, which they thought would be when Yahweh would judge all the Gentile nations, deliver Israel from every trouble, exalt Israel to might and dominion above all nations, and bless it with greater honor and glory. Amos (at times referred to as the prophet ofsocial justice) came to the Northern Kingdom to preach a message ofimpending judgment, or doom. He could see beneath the exterior glory, the surface glitter ofthe Northern Kingdom; he could see the real condition ofthe land, that it was rotten. Amos focused on all the evils and wickedness in the Northern Kingdom. His book is the chief source of information relating to the internal conditions in the Northern Kingdom during the reign ofJeroboam II. As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 258) says, Amos does not mention the Assyrians by name, but he clearly predicts their coming and the exile, if the people did not change. His purpose was to warn, in order to shake the people up, bring them to their spiritual senses, lead them to repent. In addition, his purpose was to foretell the coming ofthe Messianic Kingdom. Most of the people ofthe North did not listen to Amos and repent. Remember that in 745 Tiglath-pileser III became king ofAssyria, and that nation was resurgent and again became aggressive from a military standpoint. The Northern Kingdom came under Assyrian domination, and eventually was brought to an end by the Assyrians in 722 B.C. (only about thirty-one years after the death of Jeroboam II). With Amos 9:11-15 there is a complete change oftone; the book ends with bright, positive good news. This is the prophecy concerning the Messianic Kingdom. David's dynasty fonnerly was referred to as the house ofDavid, but now it is called a tent (or booth), indicating that it had undergone, and would undergo, deterioration. The Davidic dynasty suffered one blow when the ten northern tribes broke away. Also, it became spiritually corrupt. Then the Babylonians conquered the Southern Kingdom, and eventually brought that kingdom to an end; there were no more political kings from the Davidic dynasty. Judah had various foreign rulers, until by the time ofJesus the rulers were the Romans. The spiritual leaders were corrupt. So the dynasty of David itselfwould be in very bad condition (as ifit were a collapsed tent), and it would exist in most unpromising circumstances. Apparently, the dynasty would never rise again. However, God would raise it up. He sent His Son who, becoming a man, was a descendant ofDavid. Jesus took up His father David's throne; He set up a spiritual (not an earthly) kingdom, which lasts forever. See Acts 15:16-18 (where the Septuagint is quoted). With the preaching ofthe Gospel, first in Palestine, and then beyond, some who were descendants ofthose who had been in the old Northern Kingdom, as well as those who had been in the old Southern Kingdom, would be brought to faith. Thus there would be a spiritual reunification ofthe Northern and Southern Kingdoms. Further, the Christian Church, the kingdom (spiritual) ofthe Second David, would also include Gentiles, even traditional enemies ofIsrael, represented by "Edom." The Gospel would go throughout the world, and there would be converts from every nation. In this way David's dynasty would be as it used to be: ruling, over a united kingdom, which included Gentiles. Verses 13-15 depict spiritual blessings ofthe Messiah's kingdom, and the blessedness 6.3 of the new creation, the new heaven and earth; the Messianic kingdom culminates in the new creation. In verse 14 "Israel" signifies the spiritual Kingdom ofGod (which in the New Testament era is the Messianic Kingdom). That verse reads literally, "I will restore the captivity ofMy people Israel," which means, "I will restore My people Israe1." The phrase means the turning ofmisfortune and misery into prosperity and salvation. Spiritual Israel experienced suffering in Amos' day, and it would in all later world history. But there will be a time when the sufferings ofspiritual Israel will end, and God will plant Israel in a land (new heaven and earth, the second Paradise) where Israel wilI experience forever joy, peace, and security. Thus Amos, as do other prophets, uses earthly imagery to depict the blessings ofthe Messianic kingdom, and the new creation. He uses Old Testament language (as do other prophets), all that was available to him, to express New Testament truths. Also, he uses imagery already seen in his book ( destruction, exile), to depict future, higher realities. Amos emphasized the covenant relationship between God and Israel, His chosen people ofthe Old Testament era. The covenant name "Yahweh" appears constantly throughout his book: "Yahweh," 52 times; "the Lord Yahweh," 19 times; and "Yahweh, God ofHosts," 6 times. This special relationship brought out Yahweh's blessing and mercy on Israel, but also Israel's responsibility to Yahweh and the covenant. Israel, in particular the Northern Kingdom, was found gUilty. Yahweh had tried, and was trying, to get the people to repent. Persistent wickedness would result in His fierce judgment. Yahweh would fulfill the threats connected with disobedience to the covenant (see, e.g., Deuteronomy 28:15-68). Nevertheless, He would also keep His promise to send the Messiah. 2. Jonah Author: The prophet Jonah. He is undoubtedly the Jonah mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25. From that passage we learn that Jonah was from Gath Hepher of the tribe ofZebulun in the Northern Kingdom. The Kings passage also indicates that Jonah's prophetic ministry began sometime before the conquests ofJeroboam II, who reigned ca. 793-753 B.C. Time of Composition: It is likely that Jonah's ministry at least partially overlapped the reign of Jeroboam II. Exactly when Jonah had the experiences ofhis book, and when he wrote them down, is uncertain. A reasonable approximation is to place both the events and the composition ofthe book in the first half ofthe eighth century B.C. (making Jonah a contemporary of Amos and Hosea). Purpose: To record Jonah's experience in being commissioned by God to preach at Nineveh, so that the reader might learn from the prophet's experience. 6.4
Contents: Chapter 1: 1-3 Jonah rejects God's commission. He did not want to go to Nineveh, the chief city ofthe Assyrians, because the Assyrians were enemies of the Israelites. He was concerned that, as a result ofhis preaching, the Ninevites would repent, and God would not destroy the city (cf.4:1-2). Chapter 1 :4-17 Jonah's flight and Yahweh's pursuit. It is interesting to note that Jonah thought he could flee from the presence of the Lord (1:3), and yet confessed that Yahweh is "the God of heaven, who made the sea and the land" (1 :9). Chapter 2 Jonah's prayer, which is a psalm thanking the Lord for deliverance from drowning. Chapter 3 God's commission renewed, and carried out. Nineveh repents, and is spared by Yahweh. The only record ofJonah's message to the Ninevites is in 3:4. Chapter 4 Jonah's anger at Nineveh's repentance and Yahweh's reply. The prophet did not want the Ninevites to listen to his message; he wanted Nineveh destroyed. The book ends on a question, but the answer is as clear to the reader as it must have been to Jonah. Selected Comments: In all the prophetic books, except for one, the major characteristic is the message of Yahweh to the prophet, which the prophet delivered to the people. The exception is Jonah, because it is almost entirely an account ofwhat happened to the prophet. The story of Jonah's experience is the message of the book. Jonah in his book does not speak ofhimself in the first person, but uses the third person throughout (except for the poem in Ch. 2). This is similar to Moses in the Torah referring to himselfin the third person, as did, as Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 308) notes, Xenophon in his Anabasis and Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars. Jonah is a famous battleground for various groups oftheologians. Scholars have interpreted the book as being myth, allegory, non-historical parable, or history. Discard the "wishy-washy" stance ofDillard and Longman. Jonah is history; the events took place, just as they are recorded in the book. 1.
This is the natural reading of the book: the various details provided are given as historical data. 2.
Christ's words in Matthew 12:39-42 (c£ Luke 11 :29-32) indicate that Jonah is historical. The decisive verse is 41: Christ is stating this as reality. Note also verse 42. Verses 40-42, then, are dealing with historical events. Objections to a literal, historical interpretation of the book are dealt with effectively by Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, pp. 309-313), Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 905-911), and Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 262-263). 6.5 The mission ofJonah served to remind Israel that it was to bring the truth to other nations, that it was "to implement the missionary concepts inherent in the Sinai Covenant" (Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 918). Israel was to be a light to the Gentiles. Set apart for the worship and service ofYahweh, Israel was to be separate from the nations in the sense of not engaging in their idolatrous and other wicked practices. Yet Israel, as much as possible, was to share the truth with the Gentiles. The Ninevites repented. That would be a lesson to any wicked, stubborn Israelite who refused to repent. Jonah reminds the reader that with God nothing is impossible. 3. Hosea Author: The prophet Hosea. His hometown remains unknown, but he apparently was from the Northern Kingdom, which is where he carried out his prophetic ministry. Time of Composition: In the eighth century B.C., perhaps in the second half. The minimum length for Hosea's prophetic ministry would have been about twenty-five years (from ca. 753, the end ofJeroboam II's reign, to ca. 728, the beginning ofHezekiah's reign). Hosea was called to be a prophet evidently not long before his marriage and the birth ofJezreel (1:2-3). With the birth ofJezreel God announces that Jehu's house/dynasty soon will be punished. Thus, it is likely that Hosea began prophesying toward the end of the reign of Jeroboam II, whose son and successor, Zechariah, reigned for only six months before he was assassinated. The mention of relations with Egypt in Hosea 7:11, 9:6 and 12:2 may indicate the activity of Hoshea (2 Kings 17:4), the last king ofIsrael (ca. 731-722 B.C.); this would be a parallel to the mention of Hezekiah in 1:1. The book itself gives little evidence that Hosea continued to preach after the fall of Samaria in 722. Whether or not Hosea lived to see this fall is unknown. It has been proposed that he did, and spent his latter days in Judah in retirement. Some think that because he dates his ministry (and his book) by reference to kings ofJudah (1:1), that the book was written in Judah after the fall ofSamaria, yet this is uncertain. Purpose: To leave a record ofa) Hosea's marital experience, and what that symbolized; and b) his prophetic oracles. Contents: Basically, the book can be divided into two major sections, Chapters 1-3, and Chapters 4-14. Chapters 1-3 can be seen as functioning as a preface to the prophecies of Chapters 4-14. See further the outline ofDillard and Longman, p. 359. Hosea prophesied primarily against the Northern Kingdom, although his message at times concerned also the Southern Kingdom. Selected Comments: The first part ofthe book, Chapters 1-3, has received the most attention from scholars, and has been understood and treated in numerous ways. LaSor, Hubbard and Bush (Old Testament 6.6 Survey, p. 334) comment: "The details are few and the whole account so condensed that much is left to the interpreter's imagination. But the questions about the story's meaning are not merely academic. It is the foundation ofHosea's ministry." Following are questions which have been raised concerning these chapters, with brief responses. •
Are the narratives of Chapters 1 and 3 the actual experience ofHosea (history) or a story he composed to convey a spiritual truth (allegory)? The narratives are history. This is the natural reading ofthe text. Certain details do not fit an allegorical pattern. The traditional reason for considering the story as allegory is to avoid the stigma on the morality ofGod and the prophet which the command to marry an immoral woman apparently involved. But does what is morally doubtful as history become any less questionable when viewed as allegory? Was what God commanded, and Hosea did, immoral? •
What is the relationship between Chapters 1 and 3? Chapter 3 is the sequel to Chapter 1. This is the natural reading, and certain details support this understanding. Chapter 3 seems to symbolize what is discussed in Chapter 2: Israel's spiritual adultery following her "marriage" to Yahweh in the covenant relationship, Yahweh going after Israel who has deserted the marriage and chastening Israel, and by implication, Israel's return to Yahweh, her first husband, as prophesied in 2:7, 16, 17. Also, Gomer is the woman in Chapter 3. It is unlikely that the prophet would marry two women; a second wife would confuse rather than clarify the message that God is to restore the one nation Israel tohimsel£ •
What kind ofa woman was Gomer? It is best simply to see Gomer as an immoral woman, who had a "reputation." Hosea knew full well what he was getting into when he married her, and she indeed lived up to her reputation and deserted the marriage. In conclusion, Chapters 1 and 3 are historical, and occur in the proper chronological order. Hosea married Gomer, had children, and gave them symbolic names. Gomer deserted the marriage and committed adultery. She may have committed adultery even before she deserted the marriage. Hosea does not claim that he is the father ofthe second ~nd third child (cf. 1:3 with 1 :6, 8). Gomer was loved by another man (3: 1). At the command of God Hosea buys her back (3:2). Perhaps she had become a slave ofsome sort (e.g., a slave-prostitute), as a consequence ofher sin. Or, perhaps this was the "deal" Hosea worked out with her lover so the lover would give her up. The exact relationship between 3:1 and 3:2 is unclear. Hosea then brought Gomer back to his house. The implication is that Gomer was or became a changed woman, who "returned" to her husband in love. The marriage depicts the history oflsrael, especially the Northern Kingdom. From the spiritual standpoint, this was a desperate time in the Northern Kingdom, and drastic measures were necessary. God tried various methods to get the people to repent. The marriage experience of 6.7 Hosea would have caught the people's attention, and then would have been a visual aid to his spoken word. God was the faithful spouse (Hosea), Israel the unfaithful spouse (Gomer). Israel turned to Baal worship, and other forms ofidolatry, committing spiritual adultery. The names of the three children symbolized aspects in God's dealing with His people. Jezreel: God would judge the house ofJehu (2 Kings 9 and 10). Lo-Ruhamah: God would not show pity to His people in the future. Lo-Ammi: God would not regard Israel as His people (because they broke the covenant and rejected Yahweh). Nevertheless, God was forgiving and loving; His grace was amazing. God would go after His people and cause them to return to Him. His love would involve discipline (cf. 2:10-13; 3:4). The people ofthe Northern Kingdom would experience exile (implied: those in the Southern Kingdom would also go into exile). This would have the benefit ofcausing many of the people to repent and grasp the Gospel promises ofGod's Word, as a result ofwhich they would return spiritually to the Lord and reform (cf. 2:14-23; 3:5). We note that many ofthose who came and settled in Judah at the end of the Babylonian Captivity were strongly opposed to idolatry and any idolatrous influences. Chapter 2 is closely related in subject matter to Chapters 1 and 3. It is a theological commentary on those two chapters. Chapters 4-14 summarize Hosea's preaching ministry (themes from Chs. 1-3 are seen in Chapters 4-14). The oracles reveal no discernible order. Hosea exposes the sins ofthe Northern Kingdom; he writes about the decline and impending fall of that kingdom. Following are emphases in these chapters. 1.
Many forgot God. They lacked saving knowledge ofGod, with its corresponding love of, affection and gratitude toward, and obedience to, God. 2.
Some were engaged in the wrong religious practice brought in by Jeroboam I; some were engaged in idolatry; and some were engaged in both, combining idolatry with their perverted Yahwism. 3.
Yahweh's changeless compassion is emphasized in 11:1-9. 4.
A key word in Chapters 4-14, indeed in the whole book, is return. Concerning God's love, LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush (Old Testament Survey, p. 344) quote W. Eichrodt: "Free from human weaknesses and limitations, God's love abides despite rebellion and hostility. Ofall the prophets, Hoseaknew what it was to love, be sinned against, and go on loving; he was the best equipped to bring this message of 'the quite irrational power of love as the ultimate basis ofthe covenant relationship.'" Ofcourse, related to the "irrational power of love" is the awesome grace (undeserved kindness) ofGod. As LaSor, etc. (Old Testament Survey, p. 331) point out, the dominant influence which gave Hosea's message its ring ofcompassion was his own suffering and disappointment. Hosea, as does Jeremiah, shows a remarkable sensitivity and depth of feeling. He, as Jeremiah, had been asked by God to suffer much as a prophet. Thus, Hosea learned obedience to the will ofGod from the things which he suffered. Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 865-866) notes that for Hosea, "who abhorred 6.8 immorality," to marry a woman known for her immorality, "constituted an act ofself-abnegation explicable only in terms ofa divine directive." The same can be said for Hosea's buying Gomer and bringing her back to his home. His experiences refined his character and enriched his ministry. Amos mainly pictured sin as breaking the covenant, as failure to meet God's demand for righteousness. Hosea's picture ofsin certainly is in hannony with this. However, in addition Hosea presents the nuance of sin as spurning God's love. Concerning Hosea 1: 10-11, notice the change ofmood and message in these verses as compared to the surrounding context (often the prophets do not have transitions in their writing). will be like the sand on the seashore -God had promised Abraham that his descendants would be many. This was fulfilled not only in the physical sense, but in another, and more important, manner. The Apostle Paul (Romans 2:28-29; 4:11-12, 16-17; Galatians 3:7; 4:28) draws out fully what it means to be an Israelite, or a descendant of Abraham. He emphasizes the spiritual aspect, that God considers all who follow in the faith ofAbraham as the patriarch's children. So the in-numerable Israelites (v. 10) include Gentile believers. Christians today, whether Jewish or Gentile, make up the "New Israel." Cf. 1 Peter 2:10. you are not mypeople... sons ofthe living God -This has three references. . a.
Some ofthe Northerners ofHosea's time, after the conquest, returned to Yahweh in true faith, whether they still lived in the territory ofthe old Northern Kingdom or were in exile. Some oftheir immediate descendants would be believers. b. The ten northern tribes were for the most part deported, and swallowed up by, and amalgamated with, foreign peoples. They lost their identity among the Gentiles. But the time would come when the Gospel would be carried out into all the world; it would reach also the later descendants ofthese ten lost tribes, and many would be converted. Their intermixture with the Gentiles would not interfere with this. They would be called the children ofGod in the Gentile lands where they would be living. c.
This phrase also refers to the conversion ofGentiles (Romans 9:26). Judah and... Israel will be reunited -"Judah" refers to the people ofthe Southern Kingdom who believed, and their believing descendants. "Israel" refers to the people of the Northern Kingdom who believed, and their believing descendants. The reunification is on the spiritual leveL In the future this united kingdom will have "one leader," the second David (the first was acclaimed king by the people): Jesus Christ. will come up out ofthe land -No matter where the people have been scattered, there will still be this reunification. great will be the day ofJezreel-There will be a scattering ofthe people ofthe Northern Kingdom, for great will be the day when that kingdom in conquered. This is a reference back to 1 :5. The destruction will be awful; the people will be taken into exile. 6.9 4. Micah Author: The prophet Micah. See the discussion in Dillard and Longman, pp. 398-399. Micah was from the country. In harmony with this is his taking great pains (1:10-16) to show how the judgment coming to Judah will affect the villages and towns of his home region, southern Judah (LaSor, etc., Old Testament Survey, p. 356). Much ofhis message is concerned with the sufferings ofthe common people and of the peasants in the agricultural areas who were exploited by rich and unscrupulous landed nobility (Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, p. 324). This is similar to what Amos saw in the Northern Kingdom -the rich oppressing the poor and reducing the peasant classes to the most impoverished ofliving conditions (Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 920). The birthplace of Amos was less than twenty miles from the home ofMicah. Jeremiah 26: 18 is the only instance when one canonical prophet (from the Prophets section ofthe Hebrew Bible, three-fold division) explicitly refers to another prophet (from the Prophets section ofthe Hebrew Bible). Micah may have been a contemporary ofAmos and Jonah. He certainly was a contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah. Scholars have noted similarities especially between parts ofMicah's book and parts ofthe books ofAmos, Hosea, and Isaiah. The books Isaiah and Micah contain one passage in common: Isaiah 2:2-4 and Micah 4:1-3. Verse 4 of the Micah passage is an extra verse, perhaps reflecting Micah's rural background. Time of Composition: During the second half of the eighth century B.C. (or perhaps the very beginning ofthe seventh century). Purpose: The basic purpose is to set forth God's "complaint" (young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 269) against both the Northern and Southern Kingdoms for their sin. Micah proclaims that the necessary product ofsaving faith is godly living. Most of the people in the Northern and Southern Kingdoms lack such saving faith, and their lives are evil in the eyes ofthe Lord. The Lord will punish them. Yet a purpose ofthe book also is to speak about salvation which centers in the Messiah, and the Messiah's kingdom. Contents: The book seems to be giving a representative sampling and summary review of the oracles which Micah delivered during his entire prophetic ministry. The only pattern in the book which the author ofthis course discerns is a very basic one: an alternation between Law and Gospel. The book frequently is divided by scholars into three parts: Chapters 1-3 prophecies ofjudgment; Chapters 4-5 prophecies of hope and restoration; Chapters 6-7 largely prophecies ofdoom. This outline may be deemed a bit too generaL Following is another possible outline. Chapters 1 -2:11 Exposing the sins ofthe people, and foretelling coming judgments from the Lord. Destruction ofSamaria -1:6. 6.10 Chapter 2:12-13 A word of promise and hope, centering in the Messiah. Chapter 3:1-12 Exposing the sins ofthe people, especially the leaders of the people, and foretelling coming judgments from the Lord. Destruction of Jerusalem -3:12; cf. 1:6. Chapters 4 -5 Prophecies ofhope and restoration. Pointing ahead to the Messianic Age. Well-known: 4:1-5, 5:2-5a. Chapters 6 -7:6 Another Law section. A. 6:1-8 Yahweh's complaint against His people, and what He wants from them. Note 6:8. B. 6:9-16 The sins of the people, and coming punishment from the Lord. C.7:1-6 A lament, a psalm ofsadness and grief, depicting the wickedness ofthe society. Uttered by a true believer in Yahweh. Cf. 7:6 with Matthew 10:35­36. Chapters 7:7-20 Conclusion ofhope and promise. A. 7:7-13 Confession, repentance, and deliverance. A true believer's, or true Israel's, continued trust in the Lord. B. 7:14-20 The book ends on a joyful note, exulting in God's mercy and forgiveness, and His vindicating the true believers. Points ahead to the Messianic age, when Christ would be triumphant. Verse 18 may be a play on Micah's name. Cf. verse 20 with Luke 1:72-73. Selected Comments: Micah speaks fervently, yet concisely, to the issues ofhis day in terms ofIsrael's covenant obligations. He describes sins which are to a large extent similar to those exposed by Amos in the Northern Kingdom: besides the rich oppressing the poor, a false sense ofreligious security, and external ritualism (no sincerity ofheart), with the corresponding lifestyle. Many critical scholars thought/think that Micah and the other prophets could only have preached judgment and doom, and so consider(ed) 2:12-13 and most ofChapters 4-7 as later additions. There is no reason to go along with that view. Micah 4:1-5 speaks about the Messianic Kingdom/Christian Church ("the mountain ofthe Lord's temple," "Zion," "Jerusalem"), how this kingdom will include people from all nations, how those in this kingdom will enjoy spiritual peace (with God and each other), and how this kingdom will last forever. Micah 5:2-5a foretells the birthplace ofthe Messiah, and how He will shepherd His flock (the Christian Church), protecting His sheep and granting them peace. Verse 2 sets forth both the humanity (born in Bethlehem) and deity ("goings out...from days of eternity") of the Messiah. 6.11 5. Isaiah Author: The prophet Isaiah, son ofAmoz, who lived in Jerusalem from the eighth into the seventh centuries B.C., is the author of the entire book. See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, pp. 275-276. However, many scholars and theologians have disagreed, or would disagree, with this position. The subject ofthe authorship ofIsaiah is a major battleground in the field ofOld Testament studies. The debate is as important as that concerning authorship ofthe Pentateuch. Where one stands on this issue is a key indicator ofone's theological position and methodology: whether one regards Scripture as inerrant, or not; whether one believes the authors ofScripture were inspired, or not; whether one is a practitioner ofthe Historical-Grammatical Method, or the Historical­Critical Method. The matter ofauthorship ofIsaiah, like that ofauthorship ofthe Pentateuch, also was part ofthe controversy in our synod's history (which took place especially from the late 1960's into the mid-1970's). Read the discussion ofDillard and Longman, pp. 268-274. Omit p. 275 oftheir discussion of authorship, which has statements which are confusing and in fact erroneous. As a supplement to Dillard and Longman, read in the handouts section pp. 205-211 ofYoung (An Introduction to the Old Testament). In summary, the dominant position today among historical-critical scholars is that there were three main authors ofthe book Isaiah: a) Isaiah son ofAmoz, living in Jerusalem from the eighth to the seventh centuries B.C., who wrote parts ofChapters 1-39; b) Second Isaiah, or Deutero-Isaiah, living and writing in Babylonia in the 540's B.C., who wrote Chapters 40-55; and c) Third Isaiah, or Trito-Isaiah, living in Judah in the post-exilic period, who wrote Chapters 56-66. In addition to the explanation given by Young, another reason for the variations in style and vocabulary seen in Isaiah could be that the prophet was writing over a long period oftime, and such variations are to be expected to a certain degree. It is interesting to note that some historical-critical scholars explain that Chapters 40-55 were added to the scroll ofIsaiah son of Amoz because Second Isaiah was a disciple ofthe first Isaiah, writing in his spirit, carrying on his viewpoint. Yet they attributed Chapters 40-55 in the first place to a second author because of differences in subject matter, style and theology as compared to Chapters 1-39. Time of Composition: Probably during the last third ofthe eighth, and first quarter ofthe seventh, century B.C. Purpose: As Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, p. 326) and Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 211) explain, the purpose ofthe book is to proclaim that deliverance is by the grace ofYahweh, and by the power ofYahweh, rather than by the effort and strength ofman. This deliverance is both physical (do not trust in human allies) and spiritual. In connection with the latter, Isaiah prophesied concerning the Messiah and His kingdom. The books emphasizes that the holy God would not permit wicked living by His covenant people, and therefore would chasten them in order to purge them and bring about a purified remnant. 6.12 Contents: Chapters 1-39 A.
1-12 For the most part, prophecies concerning Judah and Jerusalem. Largely oracles of judgment or doom. But there is also much material ofpromise and about the coming Messiah. B. 13-23
Largely Gentile oracles -God's judgment upon various Gentile nations. C. 24-27
Universal judgment, and final deliverance of those faithful to God. D.
28-33 For the most part, oracles ofjudgment and woe against the unbelievers in the Northern Kingdom, Judah and Jerusalem. However, there is also a promise concerning coming salvation and the establishment ofGod's Kingdom. E.
34-35 The contrasted future of the wicked and the righteous. Judgment against the nations and powers, referred to as "Edom," the enemies ofthose faithful to God. Chapter 35 -the deliverance of those faithful to Yahweh, and the blessings that will come to them. F.
36-39 Historical section. A key figure here is King Hezekiah. Chapters 40-55 This can be seen as the second major portion ofthe book, with the understanding that these chapters had the same author as Chapters 1-39. What follows is a listing ofthe main themes in Chapters 40-55, as given by Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 220-221), who cites J. A. Alexander. A. A description ofIsaiah's wicked countrymen, those who were unfaithful to Yahweh and worshipped idols, whether in Judah or in exile. B.
A description ofIsaiah's countrymen who still confessed the true God, but were weak in the faith. For these people, Isaiah uses different arguments to demonstrate Yahweh's power and ability to fulfill His promises. C.
The deliverance from exile in Babylonia, which serves as an example ofGod's future dealings with His people. D. The coming ofthe Messiah. E. The character of the Messianic Kingdom. Chapters 56-66 This can be seen as the third major portion ofthe book, with the understanding that these chapters had the same author as Chapters 1-39 and 40-55. The main themes of this portion are identical to themes A, B, D, and E of Chapters 40-55. Some ofthe passages of Chapters 56-66 could have been applicable to people living in Isaiah's time; some seem to fit the 6.13 needs of the people ofJudah after the return from the Babylonian exile. Selected Comments: Isaiah was a very gifted writer, as indicated by his beautiful poetic style. It should also be noted that no other prophet was chosen by the Holy Spirit to proclaim so many and such remarkable prophecies concerning Christ and the New Testament Church. That is why Isaiah is referred to as the evangelist ofthe Old Testament. Examples ofMessianic prophecies in Isaiah are seen in Chapters 7,9, 11,40 and 61. The four Servant Songs are also Messianic prophecies: 42:1-4, 49:1-7,50:4-11, and the greatest ofthese songs, 52:13-53:12. Following are emphases in the book.
. 1.
Yahweh is the supreme and only ruler. His power is infinite and universal. Therefore He will judge all nations (LaSor, etc., Old Testament Survey, pp. 386-387). 2.
Isaiah has more to say about the Holy Spirit than any other Old Testament writer (LaS or, etc., Old Testament Survey, p. 387). See, e.g., 11:2; 32:15; 61:1 (cf. Acts 10:38); and 63:10-11, 14. 3.
Isaiah strongly emphasizes the holiness ofGod. The prophet's characteristic phrase for God is "the Holy One ofIsrael." 4.
As indicated in Purpose above, Isaiah emphasizes that the holy God expected covenant obedience from His chosen people. However, many in Israel were unfaithful. The people went through the religious rituals, but their hearts were far from the Lord, as evidenced by their wicked lives. Also, many engaged in pagan worship practices. Therefore judgments would come from Yahweh. . Yet Yahweh would not wipe out Israel; He had promises tied up with the nation. From Israel would come the Messiah. Therefore the judgments would be in part a drastic discipline, purging, refining the nation, and leaving a purified remnant. To encourage those who were faithful to Yahweh, and to remind Israel that Yaliweh keeps every one ofHis promises, Isaiah foretold the coming of the Messiah. He described the Messiah's character, work, and kingdom. More will be said about this book in the Isaiah course. 6.
Nahum Author: The prophet Nahum ofElkosh. The exact location ofElkosh is uncertain. In 1:15 the reference to Judah may imply that Nahum was from Judah. Time of Composition: Nahum refers to the fall ofThebes as a well-known occurrence in 3:8 (No Amon). This took place in 664/3 B.C. under the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. So Nahum 6.14 wrote after this time. The fall ofNineveh is predicted as a future occurrence. The fall took place
in 612 B.C. Therefore Nahum wrote prior to that date. The book was composed, then, between
664/3 and 612. Since the impression from the book is that Nineveh was still in its glory, perhaps
the time period can be narrowed to about 660-640 B.C. In 640 Assyria was still at the zenith of
its power, but after that year it began to decline.
Purpose: To announce that Nineveh, the proud capital ofthe Assyrian Empire, will be
destroyed.
Contents: Notice how this book is a contrast to the Book ofJonah. Similar to Obadiah, the
Book of Nahum is mainly a message against a foreign nation.
Chapter 1 An introductory psalm, in which Nahum praises the majesty of God and announces
the punishment of the Lord's enemies (including the people ofNineveh), and the Lord's
goodness to those who trust in Him (Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 270).
Chapter 2 In vivid language Nahum describes the siege ofNineveh and the city's destruction.
Chapter 3 Nahum further describes the destruction of the city, but also gives the reasons for the
fall of Nineveh (vv. 1, 19).
Selected Comments:
The Assyrian Empire had been built by blood and torture, cruelty and massacre, destruction,
plundering, and exiling such as has been seldom seen in history. Nahum has a joyous attitude
when talking about the fall ofNineveh, but this in not, as Archer (A Survey of Old Testament
Introduction, p. 353) explains, from vengeful malice. Because he loves God and his fellow men,
he hates and despises inhumanity, cruelty, and wickedness. He is speaking as a man of God,
who is totally preoccupied with the righteous Lord's cause on earth. His earnest desire is to see
Yahweh vindicate His holiness and righteousness in the eyes of the heathen, against this ruthless
Assyrian nation. Nahum desires this so that all would realize that every nation, no matter how
strong it might be or have been, is helpless before the wrath of Yahweh.
Scholars are in agreement that Nahum has an exceptionally fine style. As a literary craftsman he
has no superior and few peers among the Old Testament poets. His book contains scintillating
imagery, numerous metaphors or similes which are both apt and brief. With his vivid
descriptions he makes the reader feel as ifhe or she is right there during the destruction of
Nineveh (but all of this is foretelling).
Nahum presents Yahweh in His universality, justice, omnipotence, majesty, mercy, and
faithfulness.
Following are other theological truths presented in Nahum.
1. Military might does not preclude obligations ofrighteousness and justice (LaSor, etc., Old Testament Survey, p. 449). 6.15 2.
Nahum not only foretold the destruction ofNineveh, but he also predicted in detailed fashion how the city would be destroyed. Archeological finds have shown that these predictions were fulfilled. Thus, as Walter Maier (The Book of Nahum [St. Louis: Concordia, 1959; 1977 reprint], p. 139) has written, the prophet's book "constitutes one ofthe most dramatic and electrifying instances ofdivine prophecy in the Old Testament." God made these predictions, and then brought them about, demonstrating both the validity ofOld Testament prophecy, and that He is the Lord ofall the earth. 3.
Nineveh fell not because it was a large, non-Israelite, wealthy, commercial city, but because it was a godless and idolatrous city, a city ofviolence, lust, and greed. Nahum shows how terrible God's judgments can be. Read in the handouts section p. 85 from Maier, The Book ofNahum. 4.
The book shows how quickly God can bring about change. In 640 B.C. Assyria was at its height, with Nineveh as the proud capital. In 612 B.C. Assyria was conquered, and Nineveh destroyed. Not long after that the Assyrians disappear from history. Read in the handouts section pp. 85-87 from Maier, The Book ofNahum. 6.16 Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 7
1. Zephaniah 2. Habakkuk 3. Jeren1iah 4. Lamentations 5. Ezekiel 6. Daniel 7. The Post Exilic Period Unit 7 -Old Testament Isagogics
Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: 1.
The isagogical matters pertaining to Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, and about the post-exilic period in Israel's history. Be able to: 1. Read these subjects with greater understanding and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1. Skim the contents of Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel and Daniel. 2. Unit 7 material in this student guide. 3. Dillard and Longman, pp. 415-420, 409-413,285-327,329-352. 4. Handout, Young, pp.360-372 Writing Assignments None 7.1
1. Zephaniah Author: The prophet Zephaniah. See the discussion of Dillard and Longman, pp. 415-416. The Hezekiah listed mayor may not have been the godly king ofJudah. IfZephaniah was ofroyal blood, the denunciation in 1:8 would carry extra weight (Hummel, The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 351). "Cushi" (which means "Nubian" or "Ethiopian"; cf. Numbers 12:1), the name of Zephaniah's father, may imply partially black ancestry (Hummel, The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 352). It is interesting to note that, in Zephaniah's foreign nations section (2:4-15), the prophet includes Cush (2:12), which is somewhat surprising (in view of the other nations which are mentioned). Time of Composition: During the reign of King Josiah ofJudah (640 -609 B.C.). Because Zephaniah presents the spiritual condition ofJudah as being very poor, and because Josiah was a godly, refonning king, the prophet perhaps began his ministry before Josiah started his refonn (628/7 B.C.), or before the refonn took on added impetus with the discovery ofthe Book of the Law (62211 B.C.). Purpose: As LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush (Old Testament Survey, p. 432) explain, Judah never recovered from the long period (about 45 years) when Manasseh was sole ruler. Throughout the great majority ofhis reign he was a wicked king, who had a terrible, corrupting influence on the land. Despite token attempts at refonn toward the end ofhis rule (2 Chronicles 33:12-19), he left indelible blots on the nation's character. Amon, his son and successor, followed in Manasseh's fonner wicked ways. Thus the land was for the most part corrupt when Josiah began to rule at the age ofeight years. Even Josiah, as good as he was, and as important as his refonn movement was, could not tum around this basic character of the land before his abrupt death in 609 B.C. See 2 Kings 23:26-27. Therefore, Zephaniah both describes the sins ofJudah and Jerusalem, and foretells judgment and disaster coming upon the land. He also writes about judgment from God on specific foreign nations because of their wickedness, and about the universal judgment (Judgment Day). At the same time, he urges the people ofJudah to repent, trust in the Lord, and show their faith in obedient living. He proclaims the Gospel, as he looks ahead to the Messianic Age and the new heavens and earth. Contents: See the previous paragraph. The book falls into two major sections: 1:1 -3:8 (unremitting condemnation, except for 2:1-3, 7, 9b, 11) and 3:9-20 (a conclusion of hope and promise). For a more detailed outline, see that ofDillard and Longman, p. 418. 3:9-20 deals with the Messianic Age, announcing that God will have for Himself a purified people (through the preaching ofthe Gospel), drawn from all the nations of the earth. Selected Comments: What nation did Zephaniah see as God's instrument for bringing judgment on Judah? See the discussion ofDillard and Longman on p. 417. After 640 B.C. Assyria began to decline, and the Scythian proposal is questionable. The strongest candidate is Babylonia (remember, Zephaniah was writing under inspiration). Discard the first sentence on top ofp. 418 in Dillard and 7.2 Longman ("Unless one is willing to accept. ..one must reject. .."). Concerning 3:18-20 Theodore Laetsch (The Minor Prophets [St. Louis: Concordia, 1956], p. 381) writes: "The closing words ofZephaniah's message are directed particularly to the believers living in the dark decades preceding Jerusalem's fall, during the horrors of the siege, and the long years ofcaptivity at Babylon." They are comforted with the reminder of the coming Messiah and His kingdom, the blessings of which were retroactive to believers in the Old Testament era (in v. 20 the "home" ofthe NIV translation is not present in the Hebrew text). 2. Habakkuk Author: The prophet Habakkuk. All that we know about the prophet is what can be gathered from the book itself, which does not give his home town, his father, or the kings under whom he prophesied. Time of Composition: Since so little is known about the prophet, the date of the composition of his book cannot be precisely determined. Noteworthy in this regard is that 1 :5-11 refers to the Chaldeans or Babylonians as already well known and having a reputation as a powerful, warlike, conquering nation. [[Excursus: Chaldea was technically southern Babylonia. However, especially because the dynasty to which Nebuchadnezzar, ruler ofthe neo-Babylonian empire, belonged came from that area, Chaldea frequently is used from the late seventh century on for all ofBabylonia.]] The prophecy says that God is raising up the Babylonians. This indicates the beginning oftheir dominance in the ancient Near East. The time probably would be after 625 B.C., when Nabopolassar (father ofNebuchadnezzar) seized the Babylonian throne and triggered the rise ofthe neo-Babylonian kingdom. Perhaps the time indicated is after the fall ofNineveh in 612. Habakkuk also predicts that the Babylonians will subjugate the land ofJudah. The impression given is that this will happen relatively soon. Nebuchadnezzar first invaded and conquered Judah in 605 B.C. It is less likely that the reference is to his second invasion in 59817 B.c. Habakkuk 1 :2-4 describes injustice in Judah, but this does not really help to pinpoint the time ofthe prophecy.. With the evidence that is available, it is reasonable to conclude that Habakkuk delivered his message late in the seventh century B.C., perhaps ca. 608-606 B.C., and wrote it down at that time or not long thereafter. Purpose: To record two questions (some call these complaints) Habakkuk presented to God,
God's responses, and Habakkuk's psalm ofpraise (uttered after his doubts had been settled and
his questions answered).
Contents: See the preceding paragraph, and the outline and discussion in Dillard and Longman,
pp.411-413. 2:6-20 could also be regarded as part ofGod's second answer (which begins at 2:2).
Selected Comments:
Chapter 2:4b is the key verse in the book. In this chapter God tells the prophet that He will judge
7.3 and condemn the proud, self-confident Babylonians, who have no faith in Him. Their empire will be destroyed, and they will not live with God in eternity. The gods ofBabylonia are powerless. But 2:4b says that the one who has faith in the Lord -who is righteous by faith -will not be condemned; he will be acquitted. That person will go on living, he will have everlasting life. This is the chief doctrine ofScripture: justification by God's grace through faith. 2:4b is quoted by Paul in Romans I:17 (also Galatians 3: 11). Luther read this verse in Romans, and thus began the Reformation. While holding to the position that Habakkuk is the author ofthe entire book, some think that Chapter 3 was a hymn/psalm composed by the prophet at a separate time from his composition ofChapters 1 and 2. There is no compelling reason to go along with this proposal. Whichever position a person takes, it makes no difference with regard to the interpretation ofChapter 3 or the book as a whole. That Chapter 3 is a hymn/psalm is indicated by the following features: • the mention ofShigionoth (verse 1), which was perhaps a hymn tune (cf. the title ofPsalm 7); • the occurrences of selah (verses 3,9, 13); • the musical notations in verse 19. The book shows that it is not wrong for a believer to have questions. God used Habakkuk's questions to draw the prophet closer to Himself. Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 936) observes that "in the thought ofHabakkuk, the concept ofthe justice of God formed the central issue in any attempt to comprehend history from a religious point ofview." 3. Jeremiah Author: The prophet Jeremiah. More is known about the life ofJeremiah than about the life of any other Old Testament prophet, due to the large amount ofautobiographical material in his book. See Dillard and Longman, p. 289. According to the narrative ofhis call (1:4-19) Jeremiah was a youth (probably not older than twenty) when he began his prophetic ministry. Time of Composition: Jeremiah began his ministry in the thirteenth year ofthe reign ofJosiah (1:2). which was 627 B.c. His ministry continued beyond the fall ofJerusalem (587/6 B.C.). At intervals throughout these forty-plus years Jeremiah was writing the oracles and narratives which make up the book (concerning 52:31-34. review the discussion ofthe composition ofKings). Precisely speaking, Jeremiah dictated many, ifnot all, ofthe portions ofthe book to Baruch, his scribe or amanuensis, who actually wrote them down. For a glimpse into how at least a large part ofthe book was composed see Chapter 36. Baruch, as Jeremiah, was taken into Egypt (43:6), and there he may have gathered and arranged all ofJeremiah's prophecies (at the direction ofthe prophet), either before or after Jeremiah's death. Purpose: To preserve the prophetic message ofJeremiah. 1.
a. The theme running throughout Jeremiah is that Jerusalem and Judah would suffer chastisement from the Lord unless there was true repentance. In the first stage ofhis 7.4 ministry Jeremiah foretold that God's instrument ofjudgment would be the Babylonians, who would come in the near future. The people would be chastised because oftheir wickedness, because of their forsaking Yahweh and turning to idolatry. b.
Judah was included in the Babylonian empire. When Jeremiah saw that the majority of the people still refused to repent, he urged them to submit to the yoke of the Babylonians. It would be useless for them to rebel against these foreign rulers, who were God's instrument ofchastisement. c.
When most ofthe people ofJudah and Jerusalem persisted in their wickedness, and refused to heed the warnings ofJeremiah, the prophet foretold a chastisement that was even more severe: the destruction ofJudah and Jerusalem, and many additional people being taken into exile. 2.
Jeremiah also spoke prophecies against the enemy nations surrounding Judah. They, too, would be judged by God for their wickedness. 3.
Amidst these prophecies ofjudgment, Jeremiah pleaded with the people ofJudah to repent. Out ofthis pleading came prophecies concerning the Messiah and the Messianic Age. These prophecies were words ofcomfort to the minority which was faithful to Yahweh (and the means by which some ofthe unbelievers were converted), reminding them that Yahweh would indeed send the Deliverer. Jeremiah encouraged the believers to continue remaining faithful to Yahweh, trusting in Him alone, and relying on His promises. Contents: See the discussion of Purpose. One very broad outline could be that given by Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 233-234). Chapters 1-25 These chapters contain prophecies ofwoe and well-being which were spoken to Judah. The order and arrangement ofthese prophecies are not strictly chronological. Chapters 26-45 These chapters deal primarily with the personal life ofthe prophet, though the autobiographical narratives are not in a chronological order. Chapters 46-51 These chapters contain prophecies against foreign nations. Chapter 52 This chapter is a historical appendix. As Young (p. 234) notes, the contents ofthe book are not arranged in what, to the western mind, is a logical order. Why is this arrangement seen in Jeremiah? It must be remembered that the book comes from the ancient Near East, and ancient Near Eastern writings do not always show the great concern for logical arrangement which seems to be characteristic ofwestern writings. Jeremiah's prophecies may seem to be scattered, but their arrangement allows for emphasis by repetition. The main themes ofthe book are recurring ones -the sinfulness ofJudah and the approaching judgment. As the reader meets these themes again and again, the impression which they make is a powerful one. 7.5 Selected Comments: After the death ofKing Josiah (609 B.C.), Jeremiah suffered much as a prophet of God. He was an object ofhatred, falsely accused of treason, slandered, and severely persecuted. He had much grief and experienced loneliness as one having few true friends (and lacking a wife -16: 1-2). See, for example, his complaint in 20:7-18. Nevertheless, because ofGod's power and protection, Jeremiah carried out the ministry God had planned for him and indeed stood as a "bronze wall" (1:18), despite the opposition of many and powerful people. By God's grace Jeremiah was able to endure his loneliness, overcome his own sinful nature, and withstand the temptation to abandon his prophetic office. With the help ofthe Lord Jeremiah maintained his spiritual integrity and remained faithful to his calling, and thus became a symbol ofcourage and oftriumph over hardship. He never once, as Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 809) states, stooped to an act ofspiritual compromise in the face ofdanger. Although Jeremiah at times prayed for God's vengeance on his enemies (e.g., 11:20; 12:3; 20:12), he still had a deep love for his countrymen. He prayed for them and lamented their judgment (e.g., 9:1; 13:17; 14:17). Concerning the text of Jeremiah, note the discussion ofDillard and Longman, pp. 291-294. The explanation for the existence of a shorter and longer edition which is preferred by the author of this course is that given by Dillard and Longman (with reference to Archer) in the first full paragraph on the top ofp. 293, starting with the words, "On the other hand, some have suggested that Jeremiah himself or his ... " The additional material in the longer edition was also by Jeremiah, even if it was incorporated by Baruch. The following table is a correlation between the MT and the LXX for ease of comparison. MT LXX 1:1 -25:13 1:1 -25:13· 25:14 -45:5 32:1 -51:35 46:1-51:64 25:14 -31:44 One example of a Messianic prophecy in the book is 23:5-6. This passage speaks about the Messiah, His righteous reign, and the blessedness ofbeing in His kingdom (a spiritual kingdom). The Messiah is identified with Yahweh, who bestows righteousness on His people (verse 6b; justification by faith). Chapter 31 :31-34 is the famous prophecy ofthe New Covenant, which will be put into effect by the Messiah, and which will replace the Old Covenant. Cf. Hebrews 8:6-13 and 10:11-18. 7.6
4. Lamentations Author: The book does not give the author's name; it remains uncertain who the author was. According to early and consistent tradition Jeremiah wrote the book, and this may be correct. As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 343) points out, the author seems to have been an eyewitness ofthe destruction ofJerusalem (because ofthe general vividness of the description ofthe devastation). Further, there are striking similarities of style and phraseology between Lamentations and J eremiah (examples are listed by Young). Time of Composition: The book was written not long after the destruction ofJerusalem in 587/6 B.C. Purpose: As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 345) explains, the book presents the attitude of a devout believer in Yahweh towards the destruction ofJudah and Jerusalem. The author laments the disaster which has occurred because of the sinfulness ofthe majority ofthe people. He grieves that his countrymen had become so wicked, yet acknowledges that the Lord, and His judgment, are righteous. The author appeals to the chastened people to repent and return to Yahweh. At the same time he sees how evil has been the action of those who have destroyed Jerusalem, and calls for their punishment. LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush (Old Testament Survey, p. 617) comment: "The historical narratives of2 Kgs. 25 and Jer. 52 give the facts; the five poems ofLamentations capture the emotions." Contents: The book has five parts, which equal the five chapters. Chapter 1 The author pictures vividly devastated, desolate, and forsaken Jerusalem. Reasons for God's righteous judgment are given in verses 5, 8-9. Chapter 2 The author pictures God's anger with the city. Some reasons for this are implied in verse 14 -the people had listened to false prophets, and not to the prophets sent by God. In verses 18-19 the author urges the people to repent. Chapter 3 Jerusalem is personified. Verses 1-20: Jerusalem laments the tragic condition that has come upon it. Verses 21-39: Jerusalem recalls that God's mercy does not end (especially verses 22-27,31-33). Verses 40-54: Jerusalem urges the people to examine their ways, repent, and return to the Lord. Verses 55-66: Jerusalem, after knowing that God has heard its cry, calls upon the Lord to punish its enemies. Chapter 4 The author presents a contrast between the former splendor and glory ofJerusalem and the city's present miserable condition. Verse 13 gives reasons for God's judgment. Chapter 5 The author, describing the suffering and griefofhis countrymen, pleads with the Lord, "Restore us to Y ourself ...that we may return; renew our days as ofold ... II (verse 21). Reasons for God's judgment are presented in verses 7, 16. 7.7 Selected Comments: Lamentations deals with a major tragedy. God had chosen the Israelites to be His covenant people. He delivered them from slavery, and enabled them to possess the Promised Land. God's plan was that the Israelites dwell there and enjoy His physical and spiritual blessings as they awaited the coming ofthe Messiah. The people, however, repeatedly rebelled against the Lord. As a result, the Northern Kingdom was destroyed, the people exiled, and the territory inhabited by foreigners. Now the Southern Kingdom has been ended. Jerusalem, the capital, the city of David, and the temple ofSolomon within the city, have been made into ruins (undoubtedly the ark ofthe covenant was consumed by fire). Many have been exiled to Babylonia. The author knows what could have been for Israel, and grieves over the present horrible reality confronting him. The author thus experienced emotional turmoil, and one can sense some ofthe questions that went through his mind due to the bitterness ofthe moment. Did God no longer care? Was there any prospect for the future? But this bitterness ofthe moment does not dominate the writer and his book. Rather, as Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, pp. 523-524) explains, in Lamentations confession is made ofsin, and God's justice is never questioned. Relying on God's love, mercy, and unfailing goodness (3:25-32), the author is certain that there will be a future under God and His Word. He knows that God's promises have not failed, despite the present terrible circumstances, and he continues to trust in those promises. The author believes that the Messiah indeed will come. Lamentations displays the magnitude of God's righteous wrath, and shows the need for the Deliverer, who bore and made atonement for the transgressions of all sinners. Through faith in the Messiah, the people would have forgiveness and everlasting life. The first four chapters ofLamentations are acrostics, written according to the twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet. Review the discussion in the Old Testament Bible course, and note the comments ofDillard and Longman on p. 308. LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush (Old Testament Survey, p. 619) explain that as a piece ofartistry the acrostic was an act ofdevotion by the poet. They suggest that in Lamentations this form seems to have served at least two other purposes. 1.
It signaled a full expression ofanguish and contrition, by covering the subject from aleph to tau (i.e., A to Z). 2.
It placed artistic constraints on the lament, thus keeping it from deteriorating to an uncontrolled wail, howl, or whine. Another possible purpose for the acrostic form was that it may have indicated that the grief would come to an end. Lamentations was one ofthe Megilloth, and was read on the 9th ofAb. 5.
Ezekiel Author: The prophet Ezekiel. See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, pp. 313-319. In 7.8 Babylonia Ezekiel lived in the community Tel-Abib (3:15). He possessed a house (8:1) and was happily married (24:15-18), until his wife died suddenly in 588 (on the day the final siege of Jerusalem began). Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 258) observes that the fact Ezekiel had a house indicates fair living conditions not only for the prophet but also for most of the other exiles. The Babylonians in general were more humane in their policy ofdeportation than the Assyrians had been. A reasonable estimation is that the physical circumstances ofthe exiles in Babylonia in Ezekiel's time were not extremely good and not extremely bad. Later, a number of these exiles became prosperous merchants and businessmen in Babylonia. Aside from their physical circumstances, the exiles needed someone to minister to their spiritual needs. Ezekiel was God's servant for that purpose. Hummel (p. 258) points out that, in contrast to many ofthe prophets before him, and especially to his contemporary Jeremiah, Ezekiel apparently was tolerated, perhaps even held in some esteem, by his fellow exiles. There is no indication that he was persecuted. He is consulted by the elders ofthe exiles (8:1; 14:1; 20:1), and at times listened to by large crowds. However, at least until the fall ofJerusalem, many of the people did not believe the message ofEzekiel, or did not understand what he was saying (20:49; 33 :30-32). The destruction ofJerusalem was striking proof that Ezekiel's proclamation was true and reliable; he indeed was a genuine prophet receiving revelation from God. Time of Composition: Ezekiel's ministry lasted for at least twenty-two years (ca. 593-571 B.C.). See Dillard and Longman, p. 313, and their chronological table on p. 315. It was during this period, or shortly thereafter, that Ezekiel wrote his book. Purpose: To preserve a record of Ezekiel's prophetic ministry. His task was "to impress upon the exiles the fact that calamity had come because of their own sinfulness" (Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 244). During the first part of his ministry he foretold that Jerusalem would be destroyed if the people back in Judah persisted in their idolatry and other wickedness. Ezekiel explained that God's chastisements were necessary ifHe was to correct His disobedient people and draw them back from unbelief. In addition, the prophet foretold that the holy God, as Ruler ofall the earth, would also bring righteous judgment on certain Gentile peoples because of their transgressions. Throughout his ministry Ezekiel urged the exiles to repent and trust in Yahweh, who was ever faithful to His promises. To strengthen the faith and hope ofthose who believed (and that unbelievers might be converted), Ezekiel told about a glorious future time. He prophesied about the coming Messiah, the rise and development ofthe Messianic Kingdom (the Christian Church), and the creation of the new heavens and earth. Contents: See the outline of Dillard and Longman, pp. 320-321. Another way to outline the book is to have Chapters 33-39 as the third section, and Chapters 40-48 as the fourth and final section. Chapters 1-24 contain prophecies uttered before the destruction ofJerusalem; Chapters 33-48 contain prophecies spoken after the fall ofthe city (33:21). 33:1-20 is a repetition and expansion ofthe same watchman theme, with its stress on the individual accountability and responsibility ofboth the prophet and the people, seen in Chapter 3. Chapter 33:1-20 is a sort of recommissioning ofthe prophet at this crucial point in his ministry (the Babylonians taking 7.9 Jerusalem).
Selected Comments:
Dillard and Longman wax eloquent at the bottom ofp. 319. Their discussion, beginning with
"The prophet so identified with the fate ofhis people as vicariously to take their suffering on
himself and to ... ," and continuing to the end ofthe page, is extreme. Ezekiel performed his sign
acts simply in obedience to God's directives.
A characteristic ofthe book is God's calling Ezekiel son ofman (to emphasize Ezekiel's
humanity), and telling him, set yourface against, to strengthen his determination to prophesy,
despite the fact that many ofhis hearers would (at least initially) refuse to believe his messages.
The message ofChapter 34 is that in the future God would get rid ofthe false shepherds (leaders
ofthe people). He Himselfwould gather (spiritually) His scattered sheep and install one
shepherd, My servant David (verse 23) over them -this is the second David, namely, the
Messiah. Verses 25-31 depict, with earthly imagery, the blessings ofthe Messianic Kingdom,
which culminate in the glorious peace ofthe new heavens and earth.
Chapter 37:15-28 deals with the spiritual reunification ofJudah and Israel (in v. 21 back ofthe
NIV translation is not in the Hebrew text). Descendants ofpeople ofthe old Northern and
Southern Kingdoms would be brought to faith when the Gospel would go out into all the world.
God's servant David (verse 24) would rule over them: Christ will rule over this spiritual
kingdom, the one, holy Christian Church.
Concerning Chapters 38-39, Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 279) comments: " ...it
seems plain that, in contrast to Ezekiel's earlier Gentile oracles, no specific historical individuals
or nations are in mind [with the names "Gog" and "Magog"]. Here the transhistorical is primary,
with, however, constant manifestations and anticipations within the course ofhistory. The major
focus, however, is eschatological, the final showdown 'battle ofArmageddon' at the end of
time." On the Last Day all evil forces (Gog and Magog) will be overthrown forever.
In Chapters 40-48 Ezekiel portrays the Messianic Kingdom and the blessedness ofbeing in this
kingdom, which merges into the new heavens and earth. With his detailed description ofthe city
and temple, he is using figurative and symbolical language, not literal; he is speaking as a
prophet, not as an architect. He is using Old Testament language and thought patterns to depict
New Testament realities. The whole description (Chapters 40-48) comes to a climax in the last
words ofthe prophecy, the Lord is there. In the end, paradise would be restored (cf. Genesis
2:10, Ezekiel 47:1-12, and Revelation 22:1-2), in which the saved will carry on perfect worship
ofGod.
With regard to the LXX being 4 or 5 percent shorter than the MT (Dillard and Longman, p. 320).
this is perhaps due to the fact that there may have been two editions of the book (as seems to be
the case with Jeremiah). The MT would be favored as the final text produced by EzekieL
7.10 6.
Daniel Author: Daniel, who was taken by the Babylonians into exile in 605/4 B.C., and who lived in Babylon into the 530's B.C. or beyond. The book has no introduction, but beginning with Chapter 7 Daniel speaks in the first person. The book is a unity, and thus it was entirely authored by Daniel (including the third-person narratives about himself in Chapters 1-6). Since the book reports the taking ofBabylon by the Medes and Persians (539 B.C.), and about events taking place not many years after this (cf. Ch. 6; 9:1; 10:1; 11:1), it was perhaps composed, or completed, by Daniel in the 530's B.C. The authorship ofDaniel is a major issue in Old Testament scholarship. This issue is on a par with the debate over authorship of the Pentateuch and Isaiah, and for the same reasons. There are two basic positions with regard to Daniel: that ofthis course, and the position that the book was written by an unknown Jew living in Palestine about 165 B.C., during the reign ofAntiochus Epiphanes. The latter position holds that Chapters 1-6 are historical fiction, and that the whole book was written to encourage the resistance movement against Antiochus, who was persecuting Jewish believers. Read in the handouts section pp. 360-372 ofYoung's An Introduction to the Old Testament, which supplement the discussion in Dillard and Longman (notice how Dillard and Longman supplement Young with their fuller treatment ofthe issue "Darius the Mede"). The following comments expand on certain points made by Young. 1.
With regard to Nebuchadnezzar's sickness (young, p. 367), Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 1115-1117) reports that he was able to observe a man with the same illness. Harrison concludes that Daniel was describing quite accurately an attestable, ifrather rare, mental affiiction: boanthropy. 2.
With regard to Belshazzar being called Nebuchadnezzar's son (young, p. 368), Archer (A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction, pp. 382-383) has the following explanation: In ancient usage the term son often referred to a successor in the same office whether or not there was a blood relationship ...In Assyria a similar practice was reflected in the Black Obelisk ofShalmaneser ill, which refers to King Jehu (the exterminator of the whole dynasty of Omri) as "the son of Omri." Moreover, it is a distinct possibility that in this case there was a genetic relationship between N ebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. If Nabonidus married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar in order to legitimize his usurpation ofthe throne back in 556 B.C., it would follow that his son by her would be the grandson ofNebuchadnezzar. The word for "father" ... could also mean grandfather. In addition to the points made by Young, Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 1117­1118) and LaSor, etc. (Old Testament Survey, pp. 666-667) note that the evidence from Qumran "indicates that Daniel was in existence in its full form, and had been distributed over a relatively wide area, prior to the time ofAntiochus Epiphanes" (LaSor, etc., p. 667). LaSor, etc. (p. 667) also cite the evidence ofthe LXX as indicating the same thing. 7.11 Time of Composition: Discussed above.
Purpose: Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 372) states well the purpose ofthe
book: liThe book ofDaniel seeks to show the superiority of the God ofIsrael over the idols ofthe
heathen nations. Although these nations had been God's instruments in punishing Israel,
nevertheless they themselves will in time pass from the scene. In the latter days the God of
heaven will erect a kingdom [the Messianic] that will never be destroyed ... Daniel, then, may be
said clearly to teach the sovereignty of God in His dealing with human kingdoms." In the future,
God's people would experience persecution, but the Lord is in complete control ofeverything,
and He will overcome all eviL He is faithful, and will deliver those who put their trust in Him.
Contents:
Chapters 1 -6 Narratives concerning Daniel and his companions in Babylon, told in the third
person.
Chapters 7-12 Visions seen by Daniel, interpreted by angels, but narrated in the first person
singular.
Selected Comments:
Nebuchadnezzar's dream in Chapter 2 signifies that God's kingdom (the stone cut without hands)
will bring to an end the four kingdoms symbolized by the statue (Babylonian, Medo-Persian,
Greek, and Roman), and every other kingdom in world history. God's kingdom will grow; it
alone will be victorious, and endure forever. This kingdom was the Old Testament Church,
which became the New Testament Church. God's people rule and conquer because they have the
Word ofthe King.
The following comments concerning Chapter 7 are an addition to the discussion ofDillard and
Longman. See Matthew 24 and 2 Thessalonians 2, which are important "control" passages for
interpreting Daniel 7. The ten horns (ten being a symbol for completeness) ofverse 7 probably
signify all the world powers (an indefinite number) between the end ofthe Roman Empire (the
fourth beast) and the rise ofthe Antichrist (the little hom). Toward the end ofworld history the
Antichrist will arise in his/its full-blown manifestation, and persecute severely the Church
(verses 21, 25). His power will seem to increase and last forever (verse 25: the saints will be
handed over to him for a time, times). He keeps on fighting against God and God's people
(verses 11,25). But suddenly his power will be cut off (verse 25: and halfa time). This will be
on Judgment Day, which unexpectedly and instantly will come (verse 26). On that day (verses 9­10), God the Father (depicted as a dignified, elderly judge), the Ancient ofDays, will judge all
people. Also on that day one like a son ofman (Jesus Christ, human, but also divine) will come
with the clouds ofheaven, who will share in the glory, authority, and power ofthe Ancient of
Days, and who will be worshipped by all people (verses 13-14). See Matthew 24:30; 25:31, etc.
In addition, note Philippians 2: 1 0-11 -on the Last Day all will confess Christ as Lord, some in
horror, and others injoy. Then the people ofGod (saints, believers) will have their ultimate
triumph, evident to all, and they will rule forever with God over the new creation (verses 22, 27).
7.12 With regard to 8:8, Alexander's four generals divided up his empire among themselves. Lysimachus took Thrace and Bithynia; Cassander, Macedonia and Greece; Seleucus, Syria, Babylonia, and the eastern countries; and Ptolemy, Egypt. The reconsecration of the temple in 165/4 B.C. (foretold in 8: 14) is celebrated each year with the Jewish festival Hanukkah. The vision ofChapter 9 has been interpreted in various ways by conservative scholars. The following are a few of the proposed interpretations (explained briefly and generally). One proposal sees the time covered by the "seventy sevens" as from Daniel's time to the end ofworld history. The Messiah (the Anointed One) will come, the Christian Church will be established, it will grow, but toward the end ofworld history it will be persecuted severely by the Antichrist, until God ends the Antichrist's power and rule on the Last Day. Another proposed interpretation sees the time covered by the "seventy sevens" as from Daniel's time to the first coming ofthe Messiah ("the Anointed One, the ruler"). Verse 26 describes the death ofthe Messiah, and the destruction ofJerusalem and the temple by the Roman army of Titus. As Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 375) explains, For the period ofthe seventieth seven the Messiah causes a covenant to prevail for many, and in the half ofthis seven by His death He causes the Jewish sacrifices and oblation to cease. His death is thus seen to belong within the seventieth seven. Consequent upon this causing ofthe sacrifices and oblation to cease is the appearance of a desolator over the pinnacle ofthe Temple, which has now become an abomination. Upon the ruins a determined full end pours out. This event, the destruction ofthe city, does not, therefore, take place within the seventy sevens, but follows as a consequence upon the cutting offofthe Messiah in the seventieth seven. A third proposed interpretation (favored by the author of this course) sees the time covered by the "seventy sevens" as from Daniel's time to the destruction ofJerusalem by Titus. Verse 26a ­"the Anointed One will be cut offand will have nothing" -refers to the death of the Messiah. The rest ofthe prophecy (verse 26b -27) deals with the coming ofTitus and the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple. The last part ofverse 27 is translated as: "until the end that is decreed will be poured out on the desolate (area)." Chapter 11 foretells the wars between the kings ofthe South (Egypt) -the Ptolemies -and the kings of the North (Syria) -the Seleucids. The chapter portrays the rise ofAntiochus Epiphanes to power, his campaigns against Egypt, and his persecution ofJewish believers. The chapter concludes with a description ofthe rise ofthe Antichrist (in his ultimate manifestation), his warfare and conquests, and his end. Cf. Daniel 12:1 with Revelation 12:7. Cf. Daniel 12:2 with John 5:28-29 and 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18. Cf. Daniel 12:3 with Matthew 13:43. 7. The Post-Exilic Period Cyrus the Great encouraged exiled people to return to their homelands and restore their gods to their temples, in marked contrast to the practice ofthe Assyrians and Babylonians, who uprooted peoples and resettled them in foreign lands. The reversal of this policy distinguished Cyrus as a 7.13 welcomed deliverer and as an enlightened conqueror. Those Jews who were living in exile in Babylonia were among those who benefited from Cyrus' policy (of course, God is the One who actually freed them from their captivity, as He had foretold through His prophets). Cyrus' edict and action in Ezra 1 were typical ofhis moderate general policy (which was followed by most of his successors) ofallowing subject peoples, as much as possible, to enjoy cultural autonomy within the framework ofthe empire. Bright (A Historv ofIsrael, p. 362) explains that, although Cyrus and his successors kept firm control through a complex bureaucracy, through their army, and through an efficient system ofcommunications, their rule was not harsh. Rather, they preferred to respect the customs oftheir subjects, to protect and foster their established religious practices and, where they could, to entrust responsibility to native princes. Ezra 1: 11 -6:22 reports that over 40,000 Jews returned to territory that was part ofthe former Southern Kingdom. Here they renewed their worship life and would eventually rebuild the temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 4:6-23, relating later events, "interrupts" the flow ofthis account). Then Ezra (Ezra 7-8) would lead a second wave ofJews back to Judah and Jerusalem. As their books report, action would be taken by both Ezra and Nehemiah (who arrived at Jerusalem after Ezra) to preserve the Jews as God's covenant people dedicated to His service. From these returned exiles someday would come the Messiah. [[Excursus: Not all Jews wanted to tear up established roots in Babylonia (indeed, some had become prosperous businessmen and merchants) and return to a land which had become unfamiliar to them, or they had never known. The return in 53817 B.C. therefore included only a portion ofthose who had been exiled or who were born during the exile. A sizable Jewish community remained in Babylon for centuries, becoming a center ofJewish scholarship producing, for example, the Babylonian Talmud.]] The Book ofEsther recounts how God delivered His chosen people, the Jews, the bearers ofthe Messianic line, from annihilation. The story ofEsther takes place in Persia. The following is a time-frame for the events in Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Ezra 1-6 53817-516/5 Esther 483-474 Ezra 7-10 45817 Nehemiah 1-13:6a 445-433 Nehemiah 13:6b-31 42?-? (no later than 400) Refer to the handout "A Chronology ofthe Ancient Near East" for the dates ofthe Persian rulers Cyrus through Artaxerxes I. 7.14
Old Testament Isagogics
Unit 8
1. Haggai 2. Zechariah 3. Esther 4. 1 & 2 Chronicles 5. Ezra 6. Nehemiah 7. Malachi 8. Psalms Unit 8 -Old Testament Isagogics
Objectives When students complete this lesson they will Know: 1. The isagogical matters pertaining to Haggai, Zechariah, Esther, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Malachi, and Psalms. Be able to: 1. Read these subjects with greater understanding and discuss them with their peers and the people they are serving. Reading Assignments 1.
Skim the contents ofHaggai, Zechariah, Esther, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Malachi, and Psalms. 2. Unit 8 material in this student guide. 3. Dillard and Longman, pp. 421-436, 189-197, 169-177,437-442,211-234. Writing Assignments None 8.1
1.
Haggai Author: The prophet Haggai. See the discussion in Dillard and Longman, pp. 421-423. Time of Composition: All ofHaggai's oracles were uttered in the same year, 520 B.C. (the second year ofthe rule ofDarius I). See the table in Dillard and Longman, p. 429. His book was composed about that same time. Purpose: To preserve the messages ofHaggai: his explaining to those in the post-exilic community why they were being chastened by the Lord, telling them to rebuild the temple, encouraging them in this project, and reminding them oftheir Messianic hope. Contents: Chapter 1:1-15 Haggai's first oracle (verses 1-11). The people's response of hearing and obeying (verse 12). Haggai's word ofcomfort and reassurance (verse 13). The temple project is begun (verses 14-15). Chapter 2: 1-9 Haggai's second oracle. Chapter 2:10-19 Haggai's third oracle. Chapter 2:20-23 Haggai's fourth oracle. Selected Comments: The early chapters ofEzra report that those returning from the exile were zealous for the Lord. They soon began their worship life in Judah, and not long after this started rebuilding the temple. They properly refused the help oftheir syncretistic neighbors. However, they allowed themselves to be discouraged, frightened, and frustrated by their opponents. This was the initial reason why the rebuilding project did not continue. Then, judging from the Book ofHaggai, the people's zeal for the Lord died down. They put the temple project "on the backburner," and had as their first priority achieving economic prosperity and a comfortable lifestyle. They began to make excuses as to why they could not rebuild the temple. Why was it so important for the temple to be rebuilt? 1.
Much ofthe Mosaic covenant presupposed the carrying on ofworship at a central sanctuary. At this sanctuary priests would teach the people and help in the faithful transmission ofGod's Word from one generation to the next. Thus, failure to have a temple would lead to a paralyzing ofthe religious life ofthe Jewish community. 2.
Was it to the glory ofGod to leave His house a ruin? What kind ofa witness was this to the surrounding peoples? 3.
What did the temple not being rebuilt say about the spiritual health of the Jews and their priorities in life? 8.2 4.
As LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush (Old Testament Survey, p. 485) explain, the rebuilding ofthe temple would be an indication that God's promised redemption had not been forgotten and a sign ofthe people's faith in that promise. The wealth ofthe nations came to the temple (Haggai 2:7-8) during the time ofthe rebuilding project (Ezra 6:8-10), and hi the following years. Josephus (Antiquities 14.7.2; War 1.8.8) indicates that Jews from all over the world sent gold to the temple. This same sanctuary was rebuilt by Herod the Great (ca. 73-4 B.C.) and his successors, who lavished much gold on the building. However, ifthe temple ofZerubbabel was made glorious by the coming ofthe wealth of the nations, the climax ofits glory was reached when the Creator and ultimate Owner ofthis wealth, Jesus Christ, in whom dwelt all the fulness ofthe Deity in bodily form (Colossians 2:9), came to the temple. In fact, Christ was greater than the temple itself (Matthew 12:6), which was a symbol ofthe coming Messiah. In 2: 15-19 the prophet encourages the people by telling them that, since they had put spiritual matters first (as evidenced by their rebuilding the temple), God will take care oftheir physical needs. This is an illustration ofwhat Christ taught centuries later, "seek first His kingdom and His righteousness, and all these things will be given to you as well" (Matthew 6:33). Dillard and Longman are not right with their "political" interpretation of Haggai 2:20-23, explaining that this oracle shows the Jews hoped for freedom from foreign domination and the restoration of Davidic rule (pp. 423,425). Rather, in these verses Zerubbabel is addressed as the most prominent member ofthe Davidic line at the time. Thus, he represents that line. In this passage God is promising that through all future events He would watch closely over Zerubbabel and other members of the Davidic line, making sure that the line would not be lost (in the ancient Near East, one carefully guarded his signet ring, wearing it on his finger or on a thong around his neck). The prophecy indicated that some day the Messiah, the Son ofDavid, would come. Concerning the style ofHaggai, this book does not have the beautiful and obvious poetic form of some ofthe earlier prophetic writings (e.g., Isaiah). Haggai's writing certainly is very good prose; occasionally poetic elements are seen, such as parallelism (e.g., 1 :6). There is a vivacity to his writing, due to the frequent use of interrogatives. 2.
Zechariah Author: The prophet Zechariah. According to 2:4 he was a youth (cf. Jeremiah 1:6), probably ofmarriageable age, when he began his ministry. Time of Composition: The last date given in his book is 518 B.C. See the table in Dillard and Longman, p. 429. However, the prophet's ministry and writing may have continued after that time. No doubt his book was completed by, or not long after, 500 B.C. Purpose: To a large extent, the book is concerned with the struggle of God's kingdom and all 8.3 evil powers. This struggle ends with those powers being destroyed and God's kingdom being victorious, prospering (in the spiritual sense), and erijoying the new creation. The victory is accomplished by the Messiah. Thus Zechariah was writing to encourage his contemporaries (and all believers) in their faith in Yahweh, and their living the faith, which would result in God's blessing. Israel had experienced God's wrath because ofits sinfulness. Contents: See the outline provided by Dillard and Longman (pp. 432-433), and their discussion ofthe book's contents (pp. 433-436). Selected Comments: Dillard and Longman have an excellent discussion concerning the issue of authorship of Zechariah (pp. 429-432). Their comments on p. 430 apply to the Historical-Critical Method in general, specifically that method's usual way ofdealing with aspects of authorship ofbiblical books. The New Testament quotes 71 times from Zechariah: 31 quotations are from Chapters 1-8, and 40 from Chapters 9-14. 27 quotations are in the Gospels, 31 in Revelation. 3.
Esther Author: The author is unknown. A past suggestion was that Mordecai was the author, but the way he is referred to in 10:2-3 suggests that he had died before the book was composed (the author may have used records left by Mordecai). Likewise. the way Xerxes is referred to in 10: 1­2 suggests that he also had died before the book's composition (Xerxes was assassinated in 465 B.C.). As Dillard and Longman point out (pp. 191-192), the author was familiar with Persian mores, court life, and the Persian palace (which was destroyed by fire thirty years after the death ofXerxes). Therefore, the book probably was written in Persia. It perhaps was written a.
not long after 465, in Susa or a neighboring area; or. b.
sometime in the second halfofthe fifth century B.C. Time of Composition: Discussed above. Purpose: Besides providing the background for the Jewish festival ofPurim (Dillard and Longman. p. 191), the book shows the overruling providence ofthe almighty God who delivered and preserved His covenant people. the bearers ofthe Messianic line, from the hatred ofHaman who plotted their annihilation (3:6. 13). Contents: See the outline provided by Dillard and Longman, p. 190. Selected Comments: Concerning the famous "problem" ofthe name of God not appearing in Esther, see the fine discussion ofDillard and Longman, p. 196. A few additional comments may be made. 1.
4:14 seems to be a reference to God's providence. Further. some have proposed that the phrase "another place" is a circumlocution for the divine name out ofreverence for that name. 8.4 2.
Geisler and Nix (A General Introduction to the Bible, p. 260) mention that Jewish scholars did not doubt the canonicity ofthe Song ofSolomon because the name of God does not appear in that book (except perhaps at the end of8:6). 3.
Esther is similar, in a sense, to previous sections of the Old Testament, such as the stories of Joseph and Ruth (though God's name does appear in those stories), in which God does not act in any obvious way, but is definitely in the background. Two other "problems" (not mentioned by Dillard and Longman) which have been seen in Esther, and responses to them, follow. 1.
It waswrong for Esther to marry a pagan Gentile. Response: Esther is not to be blamed for this marriage, which was due to circumstances beyond her control. Esther 2:8 implies that, by royal decree, all the beautiful young women were located and brought to the king's palace. She did not seek or choose to become queen, but merely obeyed the king's order. 2.
The Jews' slaughtering their enemies, and their delight in it (Chapter 9), was wrong. This is a different situation than the slaughter ofthe Canaanites, which the Israelites were commanded by God to do. Response: Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 547) responds: ... the analogy of Scripture assures us that the moralistic criteria by which Esther is often faulted are as invalid here as elsewhere. It would be just as invalid to try to alibi...for the Jewish vengefulness on moralistic grounds. Nowhere is the Bible to be read as 'a book of lessons designed to make men morally better' (Anderson), but rather as the revelation ofhow God made both human 'wisdom' and folly work together for His transcendent good, climaxing in Christ. Esther was one ofthe Megilloth, and was read during the Festival ofPurim. 4.
1 and 2 Chronicles Author: This history is the product ofa single author, who remains unknown to us. See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, pp. 170 -172. According to tradition, the author was Ezra, and this may be correct. The viewpoint and emphases ofChronicles are what would be expected from Ezra, a Levite from the priestly line, who was, humanly speaking, the one chiefly responsible for the spiritual and moral revival ofthe post-exilic community. Whoever the author was, he used written sources in composing his history, many ofwhich are listed by Dillard and Longman on pp. 171-172. Over half the material contained in Chronicles is paralleled by other books in the Old Testament, especially Genesis (some of the genealogical information), Samuel, and Kings. It is uncertain whether the author copied from Samuel and Kings, putting in his own details here and there, or whether he copied from earlier sources, which 8.5 were also used in writing Samuel and Kings (see the discussion of 1 Chronicles 10-29 on pp. 4.15 -4.16). With regard to non-biblical sources, besides those mentioned by Dillard and Longman (p. 172), the author also refers, for example, to the book ofthe kings ofJudah and Israel (2, 16:11), the record ofUzziah's reign composed by the prophet Isaiah (2,26:22), and the annals ofJehu the son ofHanani (2, 20:34). Time of Composition: With the evidence from the book itself (Dillard and Longman, p. 171), and considering the testimony ofJosephus cited in Unit 1, the author probably wrote ca. 450-425 B.C. The time ofcomposition should not be placed past 400 B.C. Purpose: See the discussion in Dillard and Longman on the bottom ofp. 172 and the first half ofp. 173. The author is writing from a definite theological standpoint. He wants to assure his initial readers that God's promises to, and covenant with, Israel continued after the exile. Further, he seeks to instruct his countrymen from the past history ofthe nation, emphasizing that which was sound and godly in Israel's past, and holding this up as a reliable guide for operating in the present and future. He shows that the true glory ofIsrael was found in its covenant relationship with Yahweh. Thus, he writes a selective history; this is no attempt to "whitewash". 1.
He stresses his nation's unbroken connection with its beginning under the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), to whom God gave His covenant promises. In fact, the connection goes back all the way to Adam, who received the first news of the coming Deliverer. 2.
The author emphasizes in the nation's past proper worship in the temple (which was a safeguard for the covenant relationship), and all that was associated with such worship ­especially the divinely ordained priesthood, but also, for example, the temple singers, and the Levites and their functions. 3.
The author emphasizes the Davidic dynasty, which often promoted proper worship by the Israelites and so acted as a safeguard for the covenant relationship. Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 401) makes the following observations. a.
In the life ofDavid the author stresses those events which have to do with the nation's worship and which prepare for the building ofthe temple. b.
In the life ofSolomon, it is the temple and its dedication, rather than personal events in Solomon's life, which are emphasized. c.
The author highlights those kings ofthe Southern Kingdom who opposed idolatry (e.g., Asa, Jehoshaphat, Hezekiah, Josiah). d.
For this reason, the author has very little to say about the Northern Kingdom. He mentions the kings ofthe North only when they have some interaction with Judah. 4.
The author stresses direct activity of God. 5.
Another characteristic ofthe author is his concern with the "theology of immediate retribution" (see Dillard and Longman, p. 176). 8.6 Points 1, 2, 4, and 5 still had relevance for the nation in its present situation, and with regard to the future. The author is encouraging his readers to keep on trusting in the Lord, believing in the future Messiah, being faithful to the covenant, and avoiding idolatry and other wickedness. Though Israelite (political) kingship ended with the fall ofJerusalem, the line ofDavid would continue, from which would come the Deliverer. Contents: See the outline in Dillard and Longman, p. 173, second full paragraph. Selected Comments: Dillard and Longman are incorrect when they explain (pp. 173-174) that the author ofChronicles is "(3) suggesting that he regarded the schism as neither permanent nor desirable, and (4) possibly giving some expression to an eschatological hope for a revival ofthe nation in its largest extent." The author, as his fellow writers ofOld Testament books, did not foresee a political reunion ofthe Southern Kingdom and the Northern Kingdom. The same comment applies to Dillard and Longman's last sentence on p. 174 (continuing to the top ofp. 175) and first full sentence on p. 175. They are also incorrect in stating on p. 177 that a "great number ofwivesll is a token "ofdivine blessing." God's ideal for marriage was set forth in Genesis 2 (monogamy); He tolerated or permitted polygamy among His people, but did not approve ofit. Further, God specifically commanded that kings in Israel were not to have many wives (Deuteronomy 17:17). Historical-critical scholars note "mistakes" in Chronicles and conclude that the author has written an unreliable history. These "mistakes" on the part ofthe author can be seen as errors in the transmission ofthe text (text critical matters) or only as apparent errors which disappear with further study ofall the biblical evidence. For a fuller discussion, see Young, An Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 394-400. 5. Ezra (omit reading Dillard and Longman, "Ezra-Nehemiah," pp. 179-187) Author: Ezra, who led the second wave ofJews coming to Judah. Ezra 7:1 reports that he traveled from Babylon to Jerusalem in the reign ofArtaxerxes, arriving in the seventh year of that king. There is a debate among scholars as to which Artaxerxes is meant. The position of this course, which is held by the great majority ofconservative scholars, is that the king was Artaxerxes I Longimanus, who reigned ca. 465-424 B.C. Thus, Ezra arrived in Jerusalem in 45817 B.c. Time of Composition: Ezra probably wrote this book ca. 450-425. Compare above the discussion ofthe time ofcomposition ofChronicles. Purpose: To record the history ofIsrael starting with the end ofthe Babylonian exile: the coming ofthe first group ofJews to Judah in 53817 B.C., the rebuilding ofthe temple in Jerusalem, the arrival ofEzra and the second wave ofJews in Judah, and the reform ofEzra in 45817 B.C. 8.7 Contents: Chapters 1-2 The coming ofthe first group ofJews to Judah and Jerusalem. Chapters 3-6 Their starting up worship once again at Jerusalem, and their eventual rebuilding ofthe temple, which was dedicated with much joy. Chapters 7-10 The coming ofthe second group ofJews to Judah under Ezra, and his reform in the post-exilic community. Selected Comments:
The problem confronting Ezra when he came to Judah and Jerusalem was mixed marriages:
Jews, for the most part men, marrying idolatrous Gentiles. Thus the spiritual life ofthe post­
exilic community was threatened with this infiltration ofpagan ism. The proper, Old Testament
solution to the problem was to divorce those spouses who continued in their idolatry. In the New
Testament era, we handle such cases in a different way (cf. 1 Corinthians 7:12-14).
In the Book ofEzra the sections 4:8-6:18 and 7:12-26 are in Aramaic (the rest ofthe book is in
Hebrew). It is the usual "imperial Aramaic" ofthe time, the lingua franca ofthe Persian empire.
That the official letters and a royal memorandum are in Aramaic is understandable, but there is
no clear reason why the other portions are in that language.
6. Nehemiah Author: The layman Nehemiah, who, as Ezra, also served under Artaxerxes I. Nehemiah came
to Judah in the king's twentieth year (445 B.C.), thus arriving about thirteen years after Ezra. He
returned to Persia in 433 (was he recalled?) after a term oftwelve years as governor ofJudah
(Nehemiah 13:6). After a period of time (the impression is that this was not oflong duration) he
received permission to return to Jerusalem for a second term as governor. How long this second
term lasted is uncertain.
Time of Composition: Nehemiah completed his book after 433 B.C., and perhaps by the end of
the reign ofArtaxerxes 1. The time ofcomposition should not be placed past 400 B.C.
Purpose: To record the history ofNehemiah's governorship ofJudah, and what took place
during that time.
Contents:
Chapters 1 -7 Nehemiah's coming to Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the walls ofthe city,
Nehemiah's reforms, and a list ofthose who came to Judah in the first group under Sheshbazzar,
Zerubbabel, and Jeshua.
Chapters 8 -10 Chapter 8 -Ezra reading the Book ofthe Law ofMoses (undoubtedly the
Pentateuch) to the people who had assembled at Jerusalem, and their celebrating the Feast of
Tabernacles. Chapter 9 -the people assembling a second time, confessing their sin, and agreeing
8.8 to be faithful to the covenant. A list ofthose who ratified the agreement is recorded in Chapter 10. Chapters 11 -13:6 The completion ofthe resettlement ofJerusalem, a list ofthose living in the city, the dedication ofthe city walls, and the end ofNehemiah's first term as governor. Chapters 13:7-31 Nehemiah returning to Judah for a second term as governor, and his reforms. Selected Comments: Ezra and Nehemiah originally were two separate books, but early in the history oftransmission were joined together. That they were discrete compositions is indicated by the duplication ofthe list ofthe first group coming to Judah in Ezra 2 and Nehemiah 7:6-70. Also, as Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, p. 597) observes, evidence for their original separation probably is provided by the appearance ofa superscription in Nehemiah 1: I and, in Masoretic texts, by a marginal notice, "Nehemiah." The two books were combined perhaps because the Book of Nehemiah is the "sequel" to the Book ofEzra, and the activity ofthe two men in Judah overlapped. Another reason may have been, as Young (An Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 378) suggests, the desire to make the total number ofcanonical books agree with the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet (22). Important evidence has been discovered in Mesopotamia, Palestine, the Transjordan, Arabia, and Egypt which sheds light on the history ofthe ancient Near East in general after 539 B.C., and in particular on the post-exilic history ofIsrael found in Ezra and Nehemiah. These discoveries include the Cyrus Cylinder, the Nabonidus Chronicle, the Elephantine Papyri, silver bowls found at Succoth in Egypt, an inscription found at Hegra in Arabia, an inscription in the Transjordan, the Zeno Papyri, a series ofmore than seventy bullae (small lumps ofclay used to seal letters and other documents, usually stamped with an official seal) and two seals found in the Jerusalem region, a number ofstamped jar handles found in Palestine, and the Samaritan Papyri. Under Nehemiah the walls ofJerusalem were rebuilt in 52 days. Recent archaeological discoveries help us to put this incredible feat in proper perspective. The city ofNehemiah's day compromised only the very limited extent ofthe Ophel ridge south ofthe temple mount. LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush (Old Testament Survey, p. 642) report that excavations, carried out at more than a dozen sites, have found clear evidence ofoccupation ofthe western hill in the late Judean monarchy, but none ofthese sites revealed any occupation levels whatsoever for the Persian period or even the early Hellenistic era. Further, in this period the wall on the eastern side ofthe city, above the Kidron Valley, ran along the crest ofthe ridge rather than further down the slope as did the pre-exilic wall, further reducing the area walled in. Probably Nehemiah found significant sections ofthe wall still intact, so part ofthe work involved filling in the breaches and completing the height, rather than starting anew. Higher critical scholars claim that understanding the Book of Ezra to be first, and the Book of Nehemiah second, implies that Ezra's work in the post-exilic community was a failure, since Nehemiah's reforms, carried out in his second governorship, deal with the same wrongs (especially mixed marriages) as did Ezra. Therefore many ofthese scholars argue that Ezra came 8.9 to Judah after Nehemiah, in 398 B.C., during the reign ofArtaxerxes II Mnemon (404-358). However, that Nehemiah dealt with mixed marriages was due to the seriousness and intractability ofthe problem, and the stubbornness of the people's will (clearly attested in Israel's earlier history), rather than to a failure ofEzra's efforts. One possible scenario, based on a proposal by Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, pp. 1148-1149), is that Ezra returned to the Persian court not long after 45817 B.C., having accomplished his objectives. When Nehemiah later came to Jerusalem, Ezra accompanied him. After the walls ofJerusalem were rebuilt, Ezra had the opportunity to reaffirm the Torah with the people. Since there is no mention ofEzra after the dedication ofthe walls (Nehemiah 12), it is possible that he returned to the Persian court, or that he died. With Nehemiah also absent from Judah (Nehemiah 13:6), problems crop up again in the post-exilic community. Whatever, there is no decisive reason for altering the biblical order and chronology. As Harrison (Introduction to the Old Testament, p. 1150), LaSor, etc. (Old Testament Survey, pp. 653,655), and others explain, Ezra, through his emphasizing the necessity of being separated from pagan influences and ofbeing "holy" to the Lord, and his leading the reaffirmation ofthe Torah, stabilized the religious structure of the post-exilic community. Nehemiah succeeded in giving that community physical structure, and social and economic stability. Together they, under God, gave the Jews a new identity besides the ethnic. Whereas before a Judahite's identity came from being part of the political nation-state ofJudah, now it became centered around the Torah and the temple. God used the work ofthese two men to keep Israel from becoming so socially and culturally assimilated to their neighbors as to disappear into the background. Both, especially Ezra, furnished the Jewish community with a degree ofmoral strength and spiritual resilience that enabled it to survive the engulfing tides ofHellenic culture under Alexander the Great and beyond his time. Hummel (The Word Becoming Flesh, pp. 611-612), comments concerning Ezra and Nehemiah: Their cooperation remains a classical example of the necessary interpenetration of the material and the spiritual in God's earthly kingdom -and not only in the Old Testament when 'church' and 'state' are in principle still united. Without Nehemiah's heroic ... measures, Ezra's labors ofcovenant renewal could scarcely ever have come to fruition, except perhaps for a tiny clique. And without Ezra's religious measures, Nehemiah's administrative reforms would have remained purely external and legal -and probably also very temporary, as indicated by the relapse during his brief return to Persia (13:6 ff.). 7.
Malachi Author: The prophet Malachi. See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, p. 438. Time of Composition: See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, p. 439. In addition to their points, the author ofthis course presents the following for consideration. 1.
Notice how many ofthe sins Malachi had to deal with were also confronting Nehemiah during his second governorship (see the list ofDillard and Longman). 8.10 2.
Notice particularly that Malachi mentions the sin of mixed marriages. Ezra apparently had dealt successfully with this problem in 45817, and Nehemiah does not have to deal with it until his second governorship. 3.
The impression given at the end ofNehemiah's book is that this time the refonns were long­lasting in effect, that they "took hold". Thus, Malachi's ministry seems not to have occurred after the time ofNehemiah's second governorship. 4.
Nehemiah was not governor when Malachi preached and wrote: cf. Malachi 1 :8. Nehemiah did not take food from the people: Nehemiah 5:14-16. 5.
Malachi is not mentioned in a) Ezra or b) Nehemiah. a.
This perhaps shows that Malachi prophesied after the time period covered by the Book of Ezra, that is, after 45817 B.C. Ezra in Chapters 5 and 6 reports the activity of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. Moreover, since Ezra attacked mixed marriages, a reasonable assumption is that, if Malachi was a contemporary, Ezra would have mentioned the prophet as a strong ally. b.
This also perhaps shows (as #4 above definitely does) that Nehemiah was not governor­that he was not in Jerusalem and Judah -when Malachi prophesied. Nehemiah mentions Ezra as his "coworker" during his first governorship. Would he not also have named Malachi ifhe had been active in Judah at the same time as Nehemiah, especially since the prophet would have been his strong ally in attacking and treating the problems of intennarriage, oppression ofthe poor and helpless, withholding oftithes, and other evils ofthe people? True, Malachi does not mention Ezra or Nehemiah, but the only names ofpeople that appear in his book are (besides his own) Esau, Jacob, Levi, Moses, and Elijah (the names ofmajor figures living centuries before Malachi). On the basis ofthe considerations listed above, the author of this course thinks that Malachi proclaimed his messages and wrote his book during the interval between Nehemiah's departing for the Persian court in 433 and his return to Jerusalem some time later. For further discussion, see Pieter Verhoef, The Books ofHaggai and Malachi (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), pp. 159-160. Such a conclusion, ofcourse, is uncertain. Malachi's ministry should at least be placed in the fifth century B.C. Purpose: To preserve Malachi's inspired messages to the post-exilic community. The prophet: a.
pointed out God's love for the people; b.
described the sins ofthe people, ofboth the priests and the laity; c.
proclaimed the judgment that would come upon the wicked and the blessing reserved for those who repented and brought forth fruits of faith; d.
pointed ahead to the first coming ofthe Lord (the Messiah) and His second coming (Judgment Day). 8.11 Contents:
Chapter 1: 1 Superscription.
Chapter 1:2-5 God's love for the people.
Chapter 1 :6-14 Neglect and disrespect for Yahweh, especially by the priests, in liturgical functions. Chapter 2: 1-9 Corrupt teaching of the law by the priests; God's judgments described. Chapter 2:10-16 Intennarriage with pagan Gentiles, and wrong divorce. Chapters 2:17 -3:5 Disillusionment and doubt, and God's coming as the just Judge and Purifier. Chapter 3:6-12 Withholding tithes; blessings for proper stewardship. Chapters 3: 13 -4:3 The wicked and the righteous; a word ofcomfort and encouragement for the righteous, including a description ofthe Last Day. Chapter 4:4-6 Conclusion (this may be an integral part ofthe previous section). Remember the Law ofMoses; Elijah will come before the Last Day. Selected Comments: Malachi 3:1 foretells the ministry ofJohn the Baptist (my messenger), who prepared the way of the Lord (who is also called the messenger o/the covenant). John the Baptist would be a second Elijah (Malachi 4:5) who, as the first, would have a dramatic impact on the spiritual life ofhis countrymen (c£ 1 Kings 18:16-40). Cf. Matthew 11 :10-15, 17:9-13; Luke 1 :16-17; also 2 Kings 1:8 and Matthew 3:4. Review the discussion ofDillard and Longman on pp. 166-167. The scroll o/remembrance (3:16) is a unique contribution ofMalachi to Old Testament phraseology. Malachi 4:1-3 describes Judgment Day, a terrible day for the wicked Gudgment from the Lord), but a day ofcomplete joy for the righteous (total freedom from, and victory over, all evil powers; eXUlting in the new creation). The image ofthe rising sun 0/righteousness signifies the new creation, which will be completely holy, without any ofthe consequences of sin. Thus, 4:5-6 says that the second Elijah (John the Baptist) would come before Judgment Day (here is an example ofprophetic perspective: the first and second advents ofChrist are seen in one grand view). By preaching Law and Gospel, John prepared the people not only for the first coming of the Messiah, but also for His second. 8. Psalms Author: See Dillard and Longman, pp. 212-219. The authors named in the psalm titles are: a. David; 8.12 b.
Asaph -Psalms 50, 73-83 (in some ofthe titles Asaph's name evidently stands for the choir or musicians' guild fonned by Asaph and which continued after his lifetime); c.
the sons of Korah -Psalms 42-49, 84, 85, 87, 88; d.
Heman the Ezrahite -Psalm 88 (one ofthe sons ofKorah); e.
Ethan the Ezrahite -Psalm 89; f.
Solomon -Psalms 72 and 127; g.
Moses -Psalm 90. A number ofpsalms have no titles. Seventy-three psalms are attributed to David in the Psalter. He is known from scriptural analogy to have written five other psalms which lack a title: 2 (Acts 4:25); 95 (Hebrews 4:7); 96, 105, 106 (1 Chronicles 16). David probably was responsible for even more psalms. Time of Composition: There is one psalm from Moses, most are from the time ofDavid and Solomon, Psalms 74 and 79 seem to have been written right after the fall ofJerusalem, and some ofthe psalms without titles (orphan psalms) apparently were composed during or after the exile. For example, Psalm 137 seems to be exilic, and Psalm 126 may be from the early post-exilic period. Thus the Psalter accumulated by stages over a long period oftime. What the precise stages ofgrowth were, and how the book came to assume its present fonn and arrangement, is not certain. The Psalter as we have it now is made up offive books (each ending with a doxology): 1-41,42­72, 73-89,90-106, 107-150. There is other evidence within the Psalter, besides that already mentioned, which indicates that probably there were smaller collections ofpsalms, which were brought together to fonn larger collections, which were brought together to fonn books, which were brought together to fonn the Psalter. Whether five books were combined, or whether there were, for example, three books which then were divided into five (perhaps to match the number ofbooks in the Torah), is unknown. Anyone of the original books may have had later additions or withdrawals before or after it was included in the fonnation ofthe whole Psalter. Possibly the last step was to preface the Psalter with Psalm 1 as an introduction. This psalm has no title and author's name, unlike most ofthe psalms in Book L Ezra may have been the final editor ofthe Psalter, completing his work conceivably by or before 425 B.C. The Psalter was in its final fonn not later than 400 B.C. Purpose: To preserve inspired psalms composed throughout Israel's history. These poetic pieces, representing every human emotion and feeling, and carrying the reader into the immediate presence of God, well serve the devotional life of the individual believer and the congregation. Contents: See the discussion above concerning time ofcomposition. The Hebrew Bible contains one-hundred-and-fifty psalms, and Protestant Bibles have followed the Hebrew numbering. The LXX contains an additional psalm (which ought not be viewed as inspired) at the end ofthe book, thus having a total ofone-hundred-and-fifty-one. Also, two of the Hebrew psalms have been subdivided in the LXX (followed by the Latin Vulgate), and twice a pair of psalms in Hebrew has been fused into one psalm in the LXX and Vulgate. Most ofthe psalms in 8.13 Roman Catholic Bibles therefore have different numbers than their counterparts in Protestant Bibles. Selected Comments: There is no single classification scheme for the Psalms which has been universally accepted, and no one in particular is the correct one. Such a scheme is not necessary. Some of the psalms almost defy classification. Nevertheless, the author ofthis course has found it helpful to see seven basic categories ofpsalms. 1.
Wisdom, doctrinal, and ethical psalms (e.g., 1, 37, 73, 119). These psalms give guidance for wise and proper living, bring out the importance ofGod's Word, and deal with questions that may trouble the believer. 2.
Messianic psalms (e.g., 2, 16, 22, 110). These psalms contain prophecies concerning the Messiah. 3.
Prayer, confession, and commitment psalms (e.g., 23, 24, 90). The psalmist is in trouble, or recognizes that there will be trouble and suffering, yet puts his trust in Yahweh. He confesses Yahweh, and commits himself to the Lord. 4.
Penitential psalms (e.g., 32,51). The psalmist confesses his sin, and speaks about repentance, the forgiveness ofthe Lord, and living the life ofrepentance. 5.
Imprecatory, complaint, and lamentation psaIrils (e.g., 35, 69, 109). These psalms contain harsh language against the enemies of Yahweh, complaints, and/or laments. 6.
Historical psalms (e.g., 106). These psalms take up a portion of the history ofIsrael. 7.
Praise and thanksgiving psalms (e.g., 146-150). These psalms simply give praise and thanks to Yahweh. These categories, ofcourse, are not to be pressed in too rigid a fashion. Some overlap; further, a psalm can show a mixing ofthese types. The following are very brief comments concerning the Messianic psalms 2, 16, 22, 110. Psalm 2 Speaks ofGod the Father and God the Son (the Anointed One, the Messiah). The Son is the "I" at the beginning ofverse 7. Verses 7-8 refer to the Messiah's incarnation, baptism, transfiguration, resurrection, and exaltation. Psalm 16 The Son ofGod, who will be the Messiah, is speaking, foretelling that His body would not undergo decay while in the tomb (verse 10). Cf. Acts 2:22-31; 13:26-37. Psalm 22 The Son of God, who will be the Messiah, is speaking, describing His future suffering and death on the cross (verses 1-18) and His coming back to life and subsequent successful work (verses 21b-31). Psalm 110 Foretells the exaltation ofthe Messiah, His everlasting kingship and priesthood, and 8.14 His ultimate victory over all evil forces on Judgment Day. Cf. Matthew 22:41-46. The imprecatory psalms (e.g., 35,69, 109) present a major challenge to the orthodox interpreter. In these the psalmist uses harsh language with regard to the wicked. Following are thoughts on this matter, taken in part from Derek Kidner (Psalms 1-72 [Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1973], pp. 25-32) and Leupold (Exposition ofPsalms [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1959], pp. 18-20). 1.
The imprecatory psalms bring out the seriousness ofsin, God's just and righteous judgment toward the wicked, and His authority over evildoers. 2.
The Old Testament does not teach an attitude towards one's enemies that is different than what is taught in the New Testament (see, e.g., Proverbs 25:21-22). Besides, David, the author ofPsalms 35, 69, and 109, in many instances during his life showed an exemplary spirit of tolerance and forgiveness. 3.
The psalmist in no way minimized or overlooked his own guilt but confessed it and cast himself on the mercy ofGod. 4.
It has been pointed out that the Oriental, when emotionally aroused, uses commonly accepted forms ofpicturesque speech and dearly loves to portray things in brilliant colors, especially as he gives vent to what pains him or to that which he deeply desires (cf. Galatians 1:9; 5:12; 2 Timothy 4:14). Also, invective has its own rhetoric, in which horror may be piled on horror more to express the speaker's sense ofoutrage than to spell out the penalties he literally intends. The language may seem at times immoderate and irresponsible, but it has its place .. As Kidner (p. 27) explains, "it has as valid a function in this kind ofcontext as hyperbole has in the realm ofdescription: a vividness ofcommunication which is beyond the reach ofcautious literalism.1I Further, the psalms are poetry. They have the special function ofmaking an impression on us, to kindle us, stir us up, touch our whole person, rather than simply to address us, to give us information in plain prose form. 5.
The psalmist is taking the matter to God in prayer. He is asking, and leaving it to, God to avenge (Deuteronomy 32:35). The psalmist is trusting in God to make things right. 6.
The psalmist uttered these imprecations under inspiration. These are the thoughts and words God wanted recorded concerning the evildoers. As God's mouthpiece, the psalmist is speaking God's righteous curse (cf. Genesis 12:3; Deuteronomy 28:15-68). This is the impression God wanted made on the hearers and readers. 7.
Under inspiration the psalmist uttered the imprecations out ofa total zeal for Yahweh. The psalmist had pure motives, untinged by sinful anger. His passion for justice was completely genuine, and not a cover for vindictiveness. He saw the evildoers as the enemies ofGod and ofGod's cause on earth. He spoke out oftotal reverence for God's holiness. 8.15 In some instances the psalmist has in mind the vindication ofGod's righteousness and His just cause on earth (e.g., Psalm 79: 1 0). There are other motives which can be detected: that the wicked not despise God (e.g., Psalm 10:12-13); that the righteous take courage at what they see (e.g., Psalm 35:26-27); that the wicked be taught to fear God (e.g., Psalm 64:7-9). He wants the wicked to be taught that there is a holy God who hates sin, who has authority over evildoers, and who carries out righteous judgment. Therefore, as Kidner (p. 30) states, "we gain the additional insight into these maledictions, that for all their appearance of implacability they are to be taken as conditionaL..Their full force was for the obdurate ... " 8.
The psalmist was foretelling the ultimate doom ofthose who persist in hating and persecuting God's children. Raymond Surburg (Exegetical Essays and Materials Dealing with the Intemretation ofthe Psalms [Ft. Wayne: Concordia Theological Seminary, n.d.], pp. 66, 155) quotes Theodore Graebner, who wrote: Of course God desires all their repentance and salvation, and He therefore often and earnestly invites them to return from their evil ways and to leave off from persecuting and troubling his children. But ifthey will not listen to these urgent calls to repentance, but persist in their evil ways, then at last His patience comes to an end and well-deserved punishments are hurled down upon their head in all their awful severity. As warnings ofthese terrible punishments, we must view the imprecations in the psalms. 9.
Today, we are not inspired by God, so we are not at liberty to use all this language against our personal enemies or wicked people in general. Our motives would be impure, and could lead to our own spiritual damage. Rather, in light of Christ's teaching, we are to pray that they would be brought to repentance and faith in Christ. At the same time, we can pray to God to take care ofvengeance; cf. Revelation 6: 10. Also, we can ask God to overthrow wickedness and wicked forces, to prevent evil men from succeeding in their sinful devices, to hinder them, to confound them in their evil counsels, to frustrate and thwart their ungodly plans. 8.16 Supplemental Readings
Old Testament Isagogics I Old Testament Isagogics Dr. Maier III, Inst. Threefold Division of the Old Testament The Torah The Prophets Former Latter The Writings Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Samuel Kings Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel Book of
Twelve Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Psalms Job Proverbs Ruth Song of Solomon Ecclesiastes Lamentations Esther Daniel Ezra Nehemiah Chronicles Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi THE APOCRYPHA The following is taken mainly from The Oxford Annotated Apocrypha, Revised Standard Version, edited by Bruce M. Metzger (New York: Oxford University Press. 1965). pp. vii-xi. The word "apocrypha" is used in a variety of ways that can be confusing to the general reader. Confusion arises partly from the ambiguity of the ancient usage of the word, and partly from the modern application of the term to different groups of books. Etymologically the word means "things that are hidden," but why it was chosen to describe certain books is not clear. According to widespread usage today. "the Apocrypha" is the designation applied to a collection of fourteen or fifteen books, or portions of books, written during the last two centuries before Christ and the first century of the Christian era. The following are the titles of these books as given in the Revised Standard Version: 1. The First Book of Esdras 2. The Second Book of Esdras 3. Tobit 4. Judith 5. The Additions to the Book of Esther 6. The Wisdom of Solomon 7. Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach 8. Baruch 9. The Letter of Jeremiah 10. The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of tho Three Young Men 11. Susanna 12. Bel and the Dragon 13. The Prayer of Manasseh 14. The First Book of the Maccabees 15. The Second Book of the Maccabees In most of the previous English editions of the Apocrypha the Letter of Jeremiah is incorporated into the book of Baruch. which stands immediately before it. as the final chapter of that book. In these editions, therefore. there are fourteen books of the Apocrypha. None of these fifteen books is included in the Hebrew canon of holy Scripture (they are not in the Hebrew Bible). All of them. however. with the exception of 2 Esdras, are present in copies of the Greek version of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint. The Old Latin translations of the Old Testament, made from the Septuagint. also include them, along with 2 Esdras. At the end of the fourth century Pope Damasus commissioned Jerome, the most learned biblical scholar of his day, to prepare a standard Latin version of the Scriptures (the Latin Vulgate). In the Old Testament Jerome followed the Hebrew canon and by means of prefaces called the reader's attention to the separate category of the apocryphal books. Subsequent copyists of the Latin Bible, however. were not always careful to transmit Jerome's prefaces, and during the medieval period the Western Church generally regarded these books as part of the holy Scriptures. in 1546 the Council of Trent of the Roman Catholic Church decreed that the canon of the Old Testament includes them (except the Prayer of Manasseh and 1 and 2 Esdras). Subsequent editions of the Latin Vulgate text, officially approved by the Roman Catholic Church, contain these books incorporated within the sequence of the Old Testament books. Thus Tobit and Judith stand after Nehemiah; the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus stand after the Song of Solomon; Baruch (with the Letter of Jeremiah as chapter 6) stands after Lamentations; and 1 and 2 Maccabees conclude the books of the Old Testament. An appendix after the New Testament contains the Prayer of Manassehand 1 and 2 Esdras, without implying canonical status. Chronology of Patriarchal Period Abraham born 2166 Ab. 75 Abraham enters Canaan 2091 Gen. 12:4-5 Ab. 100 Birth of Isaac 2066 Gen. 21 :5 Ab. Sa. Is. 137 127 37 Death of Sarah 2029 Gen. 17:17; 23:1-2 Is. 40 Isaac married Rebekkah 2026 Gen. 25:20 Is. Ab. 60 160 Esau and Jacob born 2006 Gen. 25:26 Ab. 175 Is. 75 Twins 15 Death of Abraham 1991 Gen. 25:7 Is. Ja. 137 77 Birthright incident 1929 Wood, 53 51 n.11 n.7 Jacob's flight to Haran 1929 Ja. 84 Jacob's marriage and Rachel to Leah 1922 Gen. 29:14-28 Children born to Jacob Ja. 90 Joseph born 1915 Wood, 53 n.ll Ja. Jo. 97 6 Jacob leaves Haran 1909 Gen. 31:38, 41 Jacob enters Canaan 1909 Wood, 58 n.27 Jacob meets Esau Death of Rachel, Benjamin birth of Jo. Ja. n 108 Joseph sold into slavery 1898 Gen. 37:2 Judah and Tamar Is. Ja. Jo. 180 120 29 Death of Isaac 1886 Gen. 35:28 Jo. Ja. 30 121 Joseph elevated in Egypt 1885 Gen. 41:46 Ja. Jo. 130 39 Jacob comes to Egypt 1876 Gen. 47 :28 Ja. Jo. 147 56 Jacob dies 1859 Gen. 47:28 Jo. 110 Joseph dies 1805 Gen. 50 :26 THE LENGTH OF THE SOJOURN (STAY IN EGYPT)
Two main positions: 430 years and 215 years. The position ofthis course: 430 years. Why? a) Exodus 12:40. The Masoretic Text reading has 430 years: "Now the length oftime the Israelite people lived in Egypt was 430 years" (New International Version). But the LXX and the Samaritan Pentateuch say that the 430 years included the time the patriarchs were in Canaan as well as the time their descendants were in Egypt. The patriarchs were in Canaan 215 years. This is determined from information in Genesis (Genesis 12:4; 21:5; 25:26; 47:9). Abraham was 25 years in Canaan when Isaac was born, Isaac was 60 when Jacob was born, and Jacob was 130 when he went down to Egypt=215 years. Thus, ifone went along with the LXX and the Samaritan Pentateuch for Exodus 12:40, he would hold that the sojourn in Egypt lasted 215 years. The Masoretic Text is to be preferred unless there is decisive evidence against it. This evidence is lacking. The LXX (Codex Vaticanus) reads: "And the sojourning ofthe children ofIsrael, while they sojourned in the land ofEgypt and the land of Canaan, was 430 years." However, the Samaritan Pentateuch, while the same in thought, is not entirely the same in words. The evidence from the LXX and the Samaritan Pentateuch is lessened in that they do not reflect the exact same earlier reading. Also, neither the wording ofthe LXX nor the Samaritan Pentateuch is supported by the Syriac or Vulgate versions. There is no good mechanical reason for the words dropping out ofthe Masoretic Text. b) Exodus 12:40. Those who see the LXX as reflecting the original Hebrew reading must regard "Children ofIsrael" as also applying to Abraham, Isaac, and JacoblIsrael as individuals. This is very difficult and not true to Hebrew idiom. The Samaritan Pentateuch saw the problem here, and thus added the words "and the sojourning ofthe Children ofIsrael and oftheir fathers" (underlining added), for which there is no textual support. c) Genesis 15:13. "... enslaved and mistreated 400 years." This is a round figure for the stay in Egypt. Also, the whole period oftheir stay in Egypt did not involve slavery and mistreatment (which took place sometime after the death of Joseph). They were not enslaved and mistreated in Canaan. Genesis 15:16. The Israelites would return to Canaan in the fourth generation: after about 400 years. Why? This decision is reached in light of 15:13. Also, the wording is based on Abraham's experience: Abraham would be 100 at the birth ofIsaac. d) Acts 7:6-7. Stephen says essentially the same thing as Genesis 15:13. e) Population increase. The popUlation grew from 70 or 75, plus servants, to over 2 million (judging from the 603,550 men-at-arms mentioned in Numbers 2:32). This points to the sojourn lasting 430 years, rather than 215. The growth rate is quite remarkable, due to God's OT! • Unit 2 Sojourn page1 Chronology of Egyptian and Israelite History EGYPTIAN HISTORY ISRAELITE HISTORY DATE OF THE EXODUS
Two major positions. a) During the 15th century, ca. 1446 B.C. The "early" date. During the 18th Dynasty ofEgypt. Pharaoh: either Thutmosis III (1490-1436, or 1504-1450), or Amenhotep IT (1438-1412 or 1453-1419). Probably: Amenhotep II (1453-1419). b) During the 13th century. The "late" date. During the 19th Dynasty ofEgypt. Pharaoh: Rameses II (1304-1237, or 1279-1212). Probably: 1279-1212. The position ofthis course is a). Reasons for the 15th Century Date 1. 1 Kings 6:1. Solomon began to build the temple ca. 966. 966+ 480 = 1446. The Israelites would have remembered when the Exodus took place. For them it was probably the greatest event in their history. 480 may be a rounded figure. Those who hold to the late date say that 480 simply means 12 generations, a generation being 40 years. However, they go on to state that actually a generation was less than 40 years, perhaps being about 25 years (25 X 12 =300; 300+ 966 = 1266 or thereabouts). Questions can be raised in response to those holding this position. How do they know that 480 means 12 generations? Why do they first say that a generation was 40 years, and then contradict that assertion and say that a generation really was 25 years? If480 is to be taken symbolically in 1 Kings 6, are other numbers in Scripture in historical contexts also to be seen as symbolical? 2. Judges 11 :26. See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, p. 59. 3. The length ofthe period ofthe judges. Even assuming that some judges were contemporaries with each other, and that they "overlapped," 300+ years fits the evidence in Judges better than the years which would be allowed by the late date theory, less than 150. 4. See Dillard and Longman, p. 110 ( 1 Chronicles 6:33-37). Other reasons are given by Bimson and Leon Wood. OTl· Unit 2 Date of the Exodus pagel Rameses literally means "Begotten ofRa." The sun-god Ra was highly honored by the Hyksos as well as by the Egyptians themselves. Cf. Genesis 47:11. 2.
The biblical account implies that the Pharaoh concerned was in the northern area of Egypt, near Goshen. Moses was able to have frequent contacts with him during the period ofthe plagues. Though the 18th Dynasty made its capital in the south at Thebes, some of the rulers­particularly Thutmose III and his son and successor, Amenhotep II -still conducted extensive operations in the north and even resided there for substantial periods oftime. Thutmose III appointed a vizier for the northern area at Heliopolis, besides the vizier who continued at Thebes. So the Pharaoh had great interest in northern Egypt. There is some evidence that his son Amenhotep II was born at Memphis in the north. Thutmose III campaigned extensively in Syria and against the Hittites and the kingdom of Mitanni, far to the north of Egypt. He must have maintained substantial supply bases in northern Egypt, and lived there for extended periods. He made fourteen or more campaigns in Syria, and would not have started these campaigns from Thebes in the south. There is evidence that Amenhotep II spent much time in the northern part ofEgypt. He seems to have maintained large estates in the vicinity of Memphis, where he and his successors resided for large periods oftime. 3.
See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, p. 60: "Before going on to give arguments ... the thirteenth century (Bimson. 47-48)." An alternate explanation is that Pithom and Rameses (wherever they were located) may not have been occupied during the fifteenth century. They were built during the Hyksos dynasties (see above), and then may have been destroyed at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty by that dynasty, and not reoccupied until some time later (by the 19th Dynasty?). 4.
See the discussion ofDillard and Longman, p. 61: "Glueck's survey. however, was ... against an early date ofthe Exodus." A 1978 survey of central Moab covered some ofthe same area as that surveyed by Glueck and led the archaeological team to state that Glueck was premature in concluding that the plateau was abandoned in the period ca. 1900-1300 B.C. Bimson raises the question ofwhether the Numbers narratives always require a permanent urban population in the Transjordan at the time ofthe events related. The kings mentioned in Numbers 20ff could have been the chiefs of nomadic or semi-nomadic groups rather than the rulers offortified cities or permanently held territories. Bimson also points out that the references to cities in Numbers 21:25-27 and 22:36 may not be indicating permanent fortified sites. The Hebrew word usually translated as city, 'fr, need not always indicate a large fortified town. The same word is used to describe the temporary Israelite settlement at Kadesh in Numbers 20:16, and in Numbers 13:19 Moses sends men to spy out the Negeb to see whether its people are weak or strong. "whether the cities ['Brim] that they dwell in are camps or strongholds." Bimson concludes: " ... there is no compelling reason to place the events ofNum 20ff after l300 BC. It is by no means certain that the narratives refer to permanent kingdoms; it is especially doubtful that they do in the cases ofEd om and Moab. And a great deal ofevidence is available which suggests that north ofthe areas occupied by the Edomites ... and Moabites, the gap in occupation posited by Glueck never occurred [pp. 67-68]." OTI • Unit 2 Date of the Exodus page3 were killed, but the cities were left standing. The 13th century burned layer is not due to the Conquest but to some other, later destruction. That no such burned layer is found for ca. 1400 B.C. is to be expected. There is evidence at Hazor (Tell el-Qeday) ofa violent destruction sometime in the 13th century. This evidence indicates that nearly all habitation ceased on the plateau and that life on the main tell was able to continue only in a poor and modest fashion. However, there is no indication ofburning in connection with the destruction ofthe 13th century (Stratum I), whereas Joshua 11 :11 states definitely that the city destroyed by Joshua was burned. At Stratum III there is evidence ofdestruction by burning, this destruction being dated by archaeologists to the 15th century. This city ofStratum III perhaps was the one Joshua burned. A final comment is in order concerning the conclusion ofDillard and Longman's discussion.
The conclusion (p. 62) reads: "The text, however, does not permit certainty on the subject. ..
neither date should be held dogmatically." This conclusion is misleading, erroneous, and is to be
rejected. Except for their conclusion, the discussion ofDillard and Longman otherwise is
excellent.
Bibliography Archer, Gleason L., Jr. A Survey ofOld Testament Introduction. Rev. ed. Chicago: Moody, 1974. Bimson, John J. Redating the Exodus and Conquest. Journal for the Study ofthe Old Testament Supplement Series 5. Sheffield, England: Almond, 1981. Dillard, Raymond B. and Longman, Tremper, III. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994. Wood, Bryant G. Articles in Biblical Archaeology Review cited above. Wood, Leon 1. A Survey ofIsrael's History. Rev. David O'Brien. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986. on . Unit 2 Date ofthe Exodus pageS The Numbers in Numbers
Dr. Maier III, Inst.
Resources used in this discussion include the following.
Arndt I William. Bible Difficulties & Seeming Contradictions.
Edited and revised by Robert Hoerber and Walter Roehrs. Concordia, 1987. (BD) Archer, Gleason. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Zondervan, 1982. (Archer) Concordia Self-Study Bible. (CSB) According to Num. 1: 45-6 the number of Israelite males (excluding those from the tribe of Levi) of military age was 603,550. Cf. the second census, Num. 26:51. From this the total population of Israel can be calculated to have been from 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 people. Some question these figures, thinking that they are too high. In a discussion of the numbers by orthodox theologians two principles ahlays are kept in mind. BD, 60: "In the first place the numbers of the original text should not be regarded as fanciful inventions and therefore impossible and false. They were meant to represent a counting of persons and items that conformed to the facts in the case. In the second place every effort should be made to determine what the original text actually said and how it came to read as it does." One proposal for reducing the numbers comes from the British scholar J. W. Wenham (see BD, 62). He points out that most of the high figures involve the Hebrew word for thousand, 'eleph. When the same consonants are supplied with different vowels, the word designates "chief" (Gen. 36: 15-18 i Ex. 15: 15). He suggests that the Hebrew word (which in the original text was without vowels) did not represent a number (l,OOO), as later copyists assumed, but referred to an individual: a commander of a large group. Breaking down the census figures for the individual tribes, Wenham suggests that the text of the census figures originally meant to say: 580 leaders of 235 contingents, each of which consisted of some 25 to 100 men. The total fighting force is then estimated at 18,000 men and the entire population at about 72,000. Another proposal for reducing the numbers is that the word 'eleph in certain cases has the meaning "tribe, tribal division, clan, family." Comment: in certain passages the plural of 'eleph perhaps has this meaning. However, as Archer (129) comments, "this is a most tenuous basis on which to erect a theory allowing for reduction." The proposal involving the meaning "chief" should be rejected. It is not supported by any decisive textual evidence. Also, Wenham does not explain the total figures of 603,550 and 601,730 by breaking them down into military units, as he did in the case of the individual tribes (BD, 63). Further, according to Wenham's proposal the proportion of chiefs to fighting men would be top-heavy (CSB, 186). Cf. Num. 1:23 -59 chiefs for 300 men in simeon. Both proposals involving "chiefll and "clan" founder on the Following are questions raised in objection to seeing the population of the Israelites as 2,500,000 to 3,000,000 people. 1) How could the wilderness sustain such a large number of people for a period of about forty years? God provided for His people, and took care of their needs, by His almighty power. Some have also suggested that the wilderness was more fertile then than it is today_ 2) How could such a large population have such a low number of firstborn sons (22,273) as recorded in Numbers 3:42-43? Commentators have pointed out that the requirement of God (Numbers 3:42) applied only to those babies born after the start of the Exodus. The objection of CSB to this response (note, p. 194) is not decisive: God, after the exodus, is starting a new practice in the life of Israel. 3) How could two midwives (Exodus 1:15) be sufficient for such a large population? Two would not be enough for a population of 200,000. Shiphrah and Puah were administrative superintendents over an obstetrical guild which served the entire Israelite community. All of the midwives in the guild would not have reported personally to Pharaoh. This is in keeping with what is known of the highly bureaucratic structure of the ancient Egyptian government (Archer, p. 131). 4) How could such a large group pass through the sea in the necessary time? The path through the sea must have been wide, perhaps as much as a mile in width. The distance to travel through the sea probably was not more than 4 or 5 miles. with regard to the day-by-day journeys of the Israelites, Numbers 2:3-31 reports that they camped down in the formation of a square around the tabernacle, with three tribes on each side. If the tribes moved simultaneously at the start of a march, they could easily cover ten miles or more each day without overdriving the young of the livestock-(Archer, p. 132) _ There is no need to imagine the tribes moving single file, one tribe after the other. 5} Was the native population of Canaan really well over twenty million? Moses told the Israelites that the seven nations in Canaan they were going to displace were "greater and mightier" and "larger" than were the Israelites (Deuteronomy 4:38; 7:1; 9:1; 11:23) . There are different ways to understand the Hebrew phrases in question. Further, the phrase "larger" (or "more numerous") in Deuteronomy 7:1 may be a reference to the seven nations combined. The population of Canaan undoubtedly was large (yet probably well under 20 million), but the biblical record indicates that the land was very fertile (thus enjoying sufficient rainfall) and capable of sustaining such a population. Footnote: It has been estimated that for a rally which took place 'Hatttl.Ba.S HITTITES .. Aleppo R I A Qadesh 'Sidon ~Iake Van Ashur • Map of the Ancient ,Near East 1550-1050 \j. . . .,:e Urmia PERSIAN GlJLF CASPIAN SEA ~.-V ,iTy:re • Damascus en SINAI Important Events in the Ancient Near East ca. 1550-1050 (Background for the Exodus through Period of Judges) 1.
Following the consolidation ofDynasty 18 in Egypt Tuthmosis I (1525-1512) undertook an expedition which reached and crossed the Euphrates into Mitanni territory. There is little information about the results ofthis campaign. An equally vague Palestinian campaign took place under hie successor Tuthmosis II (1512-1504). 2.
The absence ofmilitary activity during the reign ofHatshepsut (1504-1482) gave the Syrian and Palestinian city-states a chance to free themselves from Egyptian suzerainty; this relative independence was ended by Tuthmosis III, who, from his 22nd year on, conducted numerous campaigns in Palestine and Syria. Especially important are his siege and capture ofMegiddo, where he defeated a coalition of states led by the prince of Qadesh, and his march (33rd year) from Byblos into Mitanni territory across the Euphrates. 3.
Tudhaliyas II (1460-40), the founder ofthe new Hittite Empire, captured and destroyed Aleppo, which was at that time in the control ofHanigalbat, a Hurrian confederation of which little is known. When this took place is also unknown. 4.
Amenophis II (1450-1425) continued the work of his father with an early campaign in Syria and a later one limited to more southern areas. The extent ofEgyptian control seems to have diminished during the latter part of his reign and that ofhis successor Tuthmosis IV (1425-1417). Egyptian power gradually declined until Seti I ofthe 19th Dynasty. 5.
The defection ofseveral Hittite vassal states to the Mitanni led Suppiluliumas 1(1375­1335) to destroy Wassukkani, capital ofMitanni. Aleppo and Alalakh were brought under Hittite control, but Carchemish remained loyal to the Mitanni. 6.
The military activity of Suppiluliumas remained unchallenged by the Egypitians. Hittite activity seems to have been directed primarily against Mitanni. 7.
Suppiluliumas returned ca. 1340 to take Carchemish, which was no longer able to rely on Mitanni territory. 8.
At the death ofSuppiluliumas, Asshur-uballit I of Assyria (1363-1328) took over the Mitanni territory. 9.
Syria rebelled against Hittite domination during the reign ofMursilis II (1334-1306), perhaps at the instigation ofHarernhab (1348-1320). This was quickly queUed by the Hittite. 10.
Seti I (1318-1304) campaigned in Palestine and Syria. He reached as far north as Qadesh, OTI1550-1050-Eventshandout Time Chart of the Ancient Near East: From the Israelite Slavery to the Monarchy Egypt Israelite History Hittites Assyria 1570 -1293 ca. 18th D~nast~ 1570-1546 Ahmose Israelites slaves in Egypt 1551-1524 Amenophis I 1524 -1518 Tuthmosis I 1526 Moses born 1518 -1504 Tuthmosis II 1504-1450 Tuthmosis III 1503 -1413 Hatshepsut 1486 Moses flees Egypt 1453 -1419 Amenophis II 1446 Exodus Tudhaliyas II 1419 -1386 Tuthmosis IV 1406 Wilderness Wandering (40 Yrs) 1386-1349 Amenophis III 1400 Conquest 1350-1334 Amenophis IV Suppiluliumas I 1363 -1328 Asshur·uballit I 1336-1334 Semenkhkare 1334-1325 Tutankhamun 1325-1321 Ay 1321-1293 Haremhab 1293 -1185 ca. 1911\ D~nast~ 1293-1291 Ramesses I Mursilisll 1291 -1278 Seti I Muwatallis 1279-1212 Ramesses II Hattusilis II 1212-1202 Memeptah Hattusilis III 1185 -1 070 ca. 20th Dynasty 1180 ca. Hittite Empire 1185 -1182 Setnakhte diSintegrates 1182-1151 Ramesses III 1069 -945 ca. 21st Dynasty 1050 Saul becomes king 1115 -1077 Tiglath-pileser I 1010 David becomes king 978-959 Siamun 971 Solomon becomesking 959 -945 Psusennes \I _.-Tiphsah ,, THE Tyre " t~"" I It( /'0, Q..~ ,~ Damascus ~Qan'~I qll_/ Arvad Hazo~ , ,I , 'Hamath IUNITED KINGDOM J( ./' Tadmor• Kadesh ,ft I~iblah..(-./ " / I r /'oCO;, ;' N /I I . , -rO~ ., 8llloth-gilead
Hegiddo • .•
• . IBHh-shea'fj I
G.ezer 1~,' ~\'t . • Rabbath-amtnon
J Jerusalem I
It! •LachI
ish , , I
'" .... I
I
.)
\, \ \ I
\ I
BoundariesI --. , Joppa \ • •Beersheba / / / I I Edon-geber I Kings and. Prophets of the Old Testament Saul ca. 1050-1010 Samuel (1 Sam 3:20), Gad (1 Sam 22:5)
David ca. 1010-971 Nathan (2 Sam 7:2) ') G-a.d (::t S.oII..-;;JI-{:/I)
Solomon ca. 971-931 Nathan (1 Kg 1:34), Ahijah (1 Kg 11:29)
Judah Israel Rehoboam Shemaiah (2 Chron 12:5) Jeroboam I Ahijah (1 Kg 14:2)
Abijah Iddo (2 Chron 13:22) Nadab
Asa Baasha JehU (1 I\g 16:7)
Elah Zimri Tibni, Omri Jehoshaphat Omri Ahab Elijah (1 Kg 17:1), Micaiah (1 Kg 22: 8) Ahaziah Elijah (2 Kg 1:3)
Jehoram J(eh)oram Elisha (2 Kg 3:11)
Ahaziah JehU Elisha (2 Kg 9:1)
athaliah Jehoahaz Elisha (2 Kg 13:14)
Joash Joel{?) J(eh)oash Elisha (2 Kgs 13:11.\ )
Amaziah Jeroboam II Jonah (2 Kgs 1~.: 25 ) , Amos (Amos 1:
Uzziah (Amos [Amos 1::0), {Hosea (Hos 1:IJ) , 1), Hosea (Hos 1:1)
Isaiah (Is 1:1) Zechariah
Jotham (HoseaCHos l:lJ), Micah (Mic 1:1), Shal1um
Isaiah (Is 1:1) Menachem
Ahaz Hosea (Hos 1:1), Micah (Mic 1:1), Pekahiah
Isaiah (Is 1:1) Pekah Oded (2 Chron 28:9) Hoshea Interregnum Fall of Samaria 722 . Hezekiah Hosea (Hos 1:1), Micah (Mic 1:1) , Isaiah (Is 1:1) W. A. M. ""JJJ.:: The Sin of Jeroboam I (1 Kgs. 12) Jeroboam, for political reasons, did not want the people of his kingdom to continue worshipping Yahweh at the temple in Jerusalem (1 Kgs. 12:26-27). Thus he made the golden calves, installing one at the northern end (Dan), the other at the southern end (Bethel), of his kingdom. Probably Jeroboam did not introduce the calves as idols (new gods) to be worshipped by the people. Rather, these were to be regarded as pedestals on which Yahweh stood in invisible form. Jeroboam may have made a comparison to Yahweh's special presence above the ark of the covenant (e.g., Ex. 25:22). Jeroboam wanted to instill in the people the thought that in Dan and Bethel were authentic Yahweh shrines, Northern Kingdom counterparts to the temple in Jerusalem. For Jeroboam to have presented the calves outright as idols (new gods) to be worshipped would have been too drastic a change for his subjects, in too short a time. Further, neighboring Near Eastern countries depicted their gods as standing on the backs of calves, bulls, and lions. Jeroboam was bringing into the Northern Kingdom a new form of worship of Yahweh; he was changing the symbols of Yahwistic religion. One can view Jeroboam as "walking a fine line": he was definitely introducing a new way of worship, but one which was not different enough, or so glaringly wrong, that most of his people would object and rise up in indignation. Concerning verse 28: the Hebrew ) 'eloheyka could be translated as "your God" or "your gods." The following verb ("brought up"), though, is plural in form. However, this may be due to the intentional alteration of a later scribe (in order to make the innovation of Jeroboam appear even worse). Cf. Ex. 32:4, 8 and Neh. 9:18; also, certain apparent name changes. The majority of the people of the Northern Kingdom were theologicaly "soft, II due in part perhaps to bad influence from the latter part of solomon's reign. Some theological II softness" possibly continued from the days of the judges. Other changes by Jeroboam likewise may be seen as "walking a fine line." These changes involve the two worship centers, the priesthood, and the religious calendar. The new worship centers, again, were Bethel and Dan. "Bethel" meant "house of God. II This had been a place where Jacob/Israel worshipped Yahweh when Yahweh spoke with him twice (Gen 28, 35)jf In Dan, Jonathan, perhaps a grandson of Moses (see the text critical apparatus), had established a worship center and a dynasty of priests for the tribe of Dan during the many years the tabernacle was at Shiloh (Judg. 18:30-31). Jeroboam still had a priesthood for his new form of worship, but not the one ordained by God (the Aaronic priesthood, from the tribe of Levi). This was probably because most of the Levitical priests had left for the Southern Kingdom. They undoubtedly took with them many of the true believers, those totally faithful to the covenant, from the northern tribes. Jeroboam did not drop the concept of a religious calendari *See also Judges 20:18, 26-28; 21:2 -4 A CHRONOLOGY OF THE KINGS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL
Judah Israel 1 Kg 14:21 Rehoboam 17 931-914 1 Kg 14:20 Jeroboam I 22 931-910 lKg 15:1 Abijah 3 914-911 1 Kg 15:9 Asa 41 911-870 1 Kg 15:25 Nadab 2 910-909 1 Kg 15:33 Baasha 24 909-886 1 Kg 16:8, 10 Elah 2 886-885 1 Kg 16:15 Zimri 7d 885 1 Kg 16:21-22 Tibni, 4 885-881 Omri 1 Kg 16:15,23 Omri 8 881-874 (8+4=12) 1 Kg 22:41-42 Jehoshaphat 25 870-846 1 Kg 16:29 Ahab 22 874-853 1Kg 22:51 Ahaziah . 2 853-852 2 Kg 8:16-7 Jehorama 8 848-841 2 Kg 3:1 Joram 12 852-841 2 Kg 8:25-26 Ahaziah 1 841 9:29 2 Kg 11:3-4 Athaliah 617 841-835 2 Kg 10:36 Jehu 28 841-813 2 Kg 11:4 Joash 40 835-796 12:1 2 Kg 13:1 Jehoahaz 17 813-797 2 Kg 14:1,17 2 Kg 14:17-21 Amaziah Uzziah 29 52c 796-767 791-739 2 Kg 13:10 2 Kg 14:23 Jehoash Jeroboam nb 16 41 798-782 793-753 15:1-2 2 Kg 15:8 Zechariah 6m 753/2 2 Kg 15:13 Shallum 1m 752 2 Kg 15:30-33 Jothame 20 750-731 2 Kg 15:17 Menahem 10 752-742 2 Kg 15:27 Pekahd 12 752-740 2 Kg 16:1-2 Ahazf 28 743-715 2 Kg 15:23 Pekahiah 2 742-740 17:1 2 Kg 15:27 Pekahd 8 740-732 (12+8=20) 2 Kg 18:1,9, Hezekiahf 42 728-686 2 Kg 15:30 Hoshea 9 731-722 10,13; 20:1,6 17:1-5 2 Kg 21:1 Manassehg 55 697-642 2 Kg 21:19 Amon 2 642-640 2 Kg 22:1 ." Josiah 31 640-609 2 Kg 23:31 Jehoahaz 3m 609 2 Kg 23:36 Jehoiakim 11 609-598 2 Kg 24:8 Jehoiachin 3m 598-597 2 Kg24:18 Zedekiah 11 597-587/6 Notes a)
2 Kg 8:16 definitely shows that there was a coregency between Jehoshaphat and his son Jehoram, and that it is plausible to assume coregencies later on in the Southern Kingdom (and the Northern Kingdom)o b)
The II fifteenth year of Amaziah son 0 f Joashll in 2 Kg 1lt.:23 is the year (782) when Jeroboam became sole ruler of the Northern King­domo c) 2 Kgs 14:21 (cfo 15:2) should not be interpreted as reporting that Uzziah/Azariah first became king \-lhen his father AlT'.aziah died: Amaziah reigned until 767, and 52 years beyond that year (required for the total reign of Uzziah; 2 Kgs 15:1, 27) = 715, long after Samaria fell in 7220 A possible historical recon­struction: Amaziah was taken prisoner (to Samaria) by Jehoash in 796 (cf. 2 Kg 14:11-14, 17), at Hhich point the people of Judah made Uzziah king Hin place ofll (14:21) his father when Uzziah was 16 years oldo When Jehoash died (782) Amazi~~ was allowed to return to Jerusalem, where he reigned (with Uzziah) for 15 more years (cf. 14:17). The 1127th year of Jeroboam king of IsraelI! in 15:1 is Hhen Uzziah became sole ruler of the Southern Kingdom (767). d)
Pekah was a rival king (or was at least claiming royal preroga­tives), while the IImainll king of the Northern Kingdom resided in Samaria. Later, with his assassination of PekahiBn, Pekah took the throne in Samaria. The date for the death of Pekah (732) is relatively certain because of pertinent events and corresponding years recorded in the annals of Tiglath-pileser 1110 e)
That Jotham reigned for more than 16 years (2 Kg 15:33) is clear from 2 Kg 15:30. The 16 years mentioned in 2 y~ 15:33 and 2 Chron 27:1 must concern his rule until he VIas made subordinate to his scn Ahaz (in 735); Jotham continued on in a secondary role for four years o Cf. Wood, p. 300 n. 460 f)
The 16 years ascribed to Ahaz in 2 Kg 16:2 apparently is the time when he was reigning as head ruler of Judah, from 735 (see note e above) to 719; in 719 Hezekiah took over as head ruler (l:1ood, po 301 no 52). It is reasonable to assume that in the year 715 Ahaz died and Hezekiah became sole ruler of Judah, because of 2 Kg 18:13 -the date of Sennacherib's campaign in Judah, based on Assyrian records, was 701 (tithe 14th year of King Hezekiah' s reign") 0 2 Kg 20:1, 6 seem to indicate that Hezeldah r s illness came at the time of the great Assyrian threat to Jerusalem, and that at this point God extended Hezekiah's life by 15 years (=701-686)0 The 29 years of 2 Kg 18:2 would be from when Heze­kiah became sole ruler of Judah until his death (715-686)0 g)
Josiah1s death can be assigned with certainty (on the basis of extrabiblical records) to 609. Thus, with his reign lasting 31 years, and that of Amon 2 years, the dates for Manasseh's 55-year reign would be 697-6420 W,A.M. nr Aug. 16, 605 and on sept. 7 Nebuchadnezzar was crowned in Babylon as his successor (but the first year of his reign was dated to 604) . In 601 the Babylonians and Egyptians fought a battle on the Egyptian border -both sides suffered heavy losses. The Babylonians had to go back to Babylon and regroup. This may help to explain why Jehoiakim risked rebellion in 598. Jehoiachin took the throne during the last days of 598. Jerusalem surrendered to Nebuchadnezzar on March 15 or 16, 597. The three-month reign of Jehoiachin can be set with certainty to 598-7. The contemporary year-by-year Babylonian records go no further than 594. From that point on there are gaps in the information, down to 556. Thus, there is no record from a Babylonian source for the years 588 to 587/6 when, according to Scripture, Nebuchadnezzar was engaged in his final siege of Jerusalem. Archer (p. 293): " ... since chronology is a branch of historical science, it is constantly subject to revision ... a certain amount of flexibility must always be preserved and appropriate adjustments made as new evidence comes in." Walter Maier III Judah Persia Macedon Haggai,Zechariah 520 Darius I 522/1-486 Temple rebuilt 515 Xerxes I 486-465 (Esther) Ezra arrives Nehemiah arrives 458/7 41+5 Artaxerxes I 465-424 Xerxes II Darius II 424 424/3-L~04 Artaxerxes II 404-358 Artaxerxes III 358-337 Philip II 359-336 Araes Darius III 338-336 336-331 Alexander 336-323 W. A. M. JJ.["'
"Wisdom,1I Prove 1-9 l,lokm'8h -Hebrew term for "wisdomlt sometimes used to designate human mental effort; skill in applied knowledge. Can mean wisdom given by God to man, making him wise in matters of proper, godly living; making him wise in spiritual matters for salvation. In Prove 1-9 "wisdomll is continually personified. 10 Some view the passages of Prov. 1-9 as poetic personification of
an attribute of God or a concepto
"These exalted claims for the lady Wisdom raise the question of her actual status. Is she being presented to us as a member of the angelic hierarchy, or only as an idea personified? To me it is clear that while some of this language was destined to prepare the way for the New Testament's Christology, the portrait in its 'own context is per­sonifying a concept, not describing a personality. The whole treat­ment is bold and flexible" (Kidner, 23)0 "Although wisdom as an attribute of the Lord is personified for poe­tic effect, we would not deny that the nature of this composition points toward the ontological meaning of the Logos in the New Testa­ment (John 1:2-)j Col. 1:15-16; Heb. 1:3). Sinca wisdom is more to be desired than riches (vv. 18-21)f we are directed by the medium of His attribute to God Himself as the moving Desire of human ex­istence.. Just as the Lord is eternal, so are His attributes'; (Bullock, 180) 0 *C.h. ~ 110 Some view certain passages in Prov. 1-9 as going beyond normal, poetic personification.. In these instances, personified "wisdom" is in­terpreted as being the Second Person of the Trinity. This view has been put forward as early as the church fathersj it was held by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Hilary, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome, and Augus­tine. The view also was held by Luther and later commentators such as Hengstenberg and Matthew Henry. Grammatically speaking, "wisdom" in Hebrew is a/[eminine noun. Some­times the personified wisdom is referred to as "she," or "her." But there are no neuter forms in Hebrew and all nouns thus are either mascuaine or feminine. The feminine form usually refers, in addition to nouns \\rhich are obviously feminine I to those things which a re with­out life, abstract ideas, countries, towns, parts of the body, and powers of nature. The things to which the feminine form is attached are not necessarily feminine. The word "fathers" has a feminine plural ending. So when IIwisdom" in Proverbs is referred to in the feminine form, this does not mean that wisdom is a woman. This happens because the noun "wisdomll simply is classified as feminine. (Kauffeld, 187). 195) I> Whoever refuses to heed Wisdom ains against her and so. wrongs his own soul" . These are lofty, advanced claims by Wisdom. Wisdom is eternal. Wisdom loves man and seeks his eternal welfare before God. Wisdom is the hope of man, his source of joy; in her, man finds favor from God and life .. Conclusion: Wisdom is an objectively existing person and, more pre­cisely, a divine Person with divine characteristics.. Yet this Person is at the same time distinct from Yahweh. 8:27 -
IIWhen He set the heavens in place I was there. 1I 8:30
-Wisdom-Was the craftsman at the side of Yahweh during creation, rejoicing in his presence. 8:22 -
Yahweh possessed Wisdom in the beginning of his way. Thus "Wisdomll in these passages in Proverbs refers to a divine Being, a Being having all power, holiness, omniscience, grace, justice. and kindness. Also, Wisdom distinct from Yahweh in Person, yet united with him. Since there is only one God -Yahweh -Wisdom must be a Person in the Trinity, a separate Person within the Godhead'. Bringing in evidence from the New Testament, Wisdom in these passages in Proverbs is ~he Second Person of the Trinity. GodllLuke 11:49 (Matt. 23:34) -Jesus used the phrase llthe wisdom of as interchangeable wi th a reference to himself. 'Ii-<:..f. Col. 2:3 -All wisdom is in Christ; cf. Col.. 1:15-16. rGor.. 1:24,30 -Jesus is called lithe Wisdom of God." --Cf. John 1: 1-18 -Logos (IIWord")" IIIn the Apocryphal wri tings of the Intertestamental PerIod ••• and in the works of the Jewish philosopher Philo of the first Christian century ca. 20 B.C.-A.D.50 creative Wisdom is called the 'Word,' Lo~os. The correspondence of John 1 to Proverbs 8 thus receives pre-C ristian validation" (Payne, 171-2) .. Bibliography Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books. Chicago: Moody, 19790 Kauffeld, Eugene Po Divine Footprints. Milwaukee: Northwestern, 1983. Kidner, Derek. The Wisdom of Proverbs, Job & Ecclesiastes.. Downers Grove, II.: InterVarsity, 198$0 Payne, J o Barton.. The 1'heology of the Older Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 19620 Prophecy, Prophets General Definition of Old Testament Prophecy A prophecy is an oral or written disclosure in words through a human mouthpiece transmitting the revelation ofGod and setting forth His will to man. A prophecy was delivered by those who were specially chosen by God to occupy the prophetic office. The messages which the prophets wrote down make up the major (longer) and minor (shorter) prophetic books ofthe Old Testament. Major: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel; minor: Hosea-Malachi (12). Nature of the Prophetic Office The responsibility ofthe Old Testament prophets was not principally to predict the future in the modern sense ofthe word "prophesy," but rather to tell forth the word of God which He had communicated to the prophets by revelation. A prophet was one called by God to act as His spokesman, to proclaim the message to be transmitted from God to man. Function of Old Testament Prophecy 1. The prophet had the responsibility ofencouraging God's people to trust only in Yahweh's mercy and delivering power, rather than in their own merits or strength, or in the might ofhuman allies (such as Assyria or Egypt). 2. The prophet was responsible to remind his people that their welfare was dependent upon their faithful adherence to the covenant. This faithfulness to the covenant involved not only doctrinal conviction but a sincere submission oftheir will to obey God with their whole heart and lead a godly life. The prophets regarded a godly life to be the automatic product of saving faith. Godly living involved more than just performing mechanical acts of sacrifice and ritualistic worship. 3. The prophets were to encourage the believers, the faithful. They talked to them about the ultimate triumph offaith -even when the land was being overrun by enemy forces or the people were being taken into exile. God would not forget them; further, God would keep His promise ­He would send the Messiah. 4. Hebrew prophecy showed that God's message was authoritative and true when the prophecy contained a message about the future, and that prophecy was actually fulfilled. When Yahweh, through a prophet, foretold an event, and the event then came to pass, this showed that He was indeed the Lord ofhistory, who makes a promise, and then fulfills that promise.